Davy & MacWhinney - Spanish Sentence Production

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Spanish Sentence Production

Summary Table

Abstract

The goal of this study is to determine whether and how oral repetition can improve the fluent production of Spanish sentences of various lengths and constructions. We do this by presenting students with spoken Spanish sentences and letting them practice repeating them back. In the pilot study, students heard each sentence three times and immediately repeated it back. We measured the length of the repetition (how long it took them to repeat it back) and recorded the number and types of errors they made. We found that the practice helped students fluently repeat the sentences they heard, in terms of number of errors made and in the time needed to repeat the sentence.

Current studies train students to practice speaking sentences by describing series of pictures. During training, students see pictures and hear the sentence described by those pictures and are asked to repeat the sentence back. After the initial training phase, students should be able to respond to the pictures without hearing the spoken sentence. Future work will also look at different factors that may make a difference in training, including whether it is better to train on full sentences or on individual phrases.

Background and Significance

Levelt’s speaking model (1989) says that speaking requires three different stages of processing: conceptualization, formulation, and articulation. In the conceptualization stage, the speaker generates a pre-verbal message, activating the concepts about which they wish to speak. In the formulation stage, activation spreads to the lexical level, the lemmas, which contain the lexical form and all thematic, morphological and syntactic information that goes along with it. Finally, in the formulation stage the phonetic encoding of the lemma creates an articulatory score that the speaker uses to create the motor movements involved in speaking. This multi-modular approach suggests that for second language speakers, there may be three sources of difficulty in speaking: in conceptualizing the message, in retrieving the lemmas and the related morphological and syntactic information, and in controlling the motor movements involved in actually articulating the speech.

Yoshimura and MacWhinney (2007) implemented an oral repetition task to improve speaking in Japanese learners, having them practice reading aloud Japanese sentences containing between 0 and 3 novel words. They found that reading aloud improved fluent speech in terms of the length of utterance (how long it took them to read the sentence from start to finish) and the number of errors. A pilot study for the current line of research showed that the same pattern of results occurred when students of Spanish instead repeated sentences they heard. In this study, students heard a sentence, repeated it back, then were asked to a) translate the sentence into English and b) rate their speech in terms of fluency. They repeated this four times for each sentence. Further studies in this line of research will attempt to refine this task to achieve the greatest improvements in speech.

Glossary

Research Questions

1. During an oral repetition task, do students increase fluency in terms of the time it takes them to repeat back the sentence?

2. Does this task help students increase fluency in terms of the amount of errors they make?

3. Are students aware of their own speech, to the extent that they can accurately rate their own performance?

4. Will students be able to transfer their increased fluency to novel sentences?

Study One

Study one tested whether or not a repetition task could increase fluent production of the sentences.

Hypothesis

We hypothesized that, to answer research question 1, the amount of time the student took to repeat the sentence would decrease. As to question 2, we predicted that students would produce fewer errors. We also predicted that students would be able to significantly rate their accuracy. Study 1 does not address research question 4, since it doesn't involve repeating novel sentences.

Independent Variables

The study was a within-subjects design, with the repetition number as the independent variable. So, we tracked fluency across the four repetitions of each sentence. We also varied the length of the sentences the students heard. The sentences were between four and 19 words, with an average of 8.42 words, and between 9 and 31 syllables, with an average of 15.84 words.

Dependent Variables

In this study, we use three measurements of fluency: pre-speech pause (the amount of time before the student starts speaking), articulation time (the amount of time it takes the student to say the sentence from start to finish) and the number and type of errors and corrections the students make.

Results

First, we discovered that across attempts, the time it took participants to repeat the sentence lessened. We measured this by looking both at the time between when they started speaking to when they completed the repetition, and in the initial pause, the time between when the audio stimulus ended and they started speaking. There were significant decreases in both of these times. We also discovered that across attempts, the number of correctly repeated sentences increased, and the number of incomplete sentences (ones they could not successfully repeat) decreased significantly. We also found that across attempts participants had significantly fewer missing words and different wordings (where the repetition kept the same meaning as the original but with different wording). Doing a trends analysis, we also found significant linear relationships for the number of repetitions/corrections and wrong article usages. However, contrary to what we expected, we found that in both of these cases the number of repetitions/corrections and wrong articles actually increased across attempts.

We also wanted to determine the extent to which students are aware of their own speech and whether they are able to accurately rate their own performance. To determine this, we looked at whether the time taken to repeat the sentence and a number of different errors correlated with their rating of their own speech. First we looked at the duration of the utterance, and found a significant correlation, with a rating of 3 having the longest mean duration of utterance and 7 having the lowest. Ratings of 1 and 2 had shorter durations, because ratings of 1 and 2 generally indicated that they were unable to repeat the sentence, leading to shorter, incomplete sentences. Second, we looked at whether students who rated their proficiency as being higher made fewer errors in their speech. We found that a) students who failed to complete the sentence could reliably rate their performance as a 1 or 2, and b) students with fewer errors rated their performance as higher than those who made more errors. This finding held true for all types of errors except grammatical gender errors. Students did not seem sensitive to grammatical gender errors, and were not more likely to rate their performance as lower.

Explanation

Study Two

In Study Two, in addition to hearing the sentence spoken aloud, students also see pictures that depict the sentence they hear. This way, in the training phase they both see pictures and hear the sentence they repeat, but in the testing phase they can produce the sentences without hearing them ahead of time. This ensures that their speech is not relying on echoic memory, but actually requires them to retrieve lexical and morphological information as they speak.

Students receive training on two constructions: the subjunctive (ex. "Yo dudo que tu estudies"- "I doubt that you are studying") and the preterit/imperfect contrast (ex. "Ayer/De joven tu conduciste/conducías un carro y yo saqué/sacaba fotos. - "Yesterday/As a child you drove/drove a car and I took/took pictures"). Neither of these constructions exist in English- the subjunctive case is not marked and there is no distinction between the preterit and imperfect past tense. Furthermore, both of these constructions contain two phrases, which can be trained either as one whole unit, or broken up into two separate units.

Study Two will further investigate whether it is more effective to train students using the sentence as a whole unit, or through separate phrases. For example, in the subjunctive sentences, students will either be trained on the whole thing, or on two separate phrases, "Yo dudo que-" and "que tu estudies". Doing this may potentially increase learning for two reasons: first, breaking the sentence into pieces will lower working memory constraints, increasing performance on the task; and second, using pieces may decrease cognitive load, thus freeing up more resources for learning.

Hypotheses

a. The full sentences may be more difficult. So, the condition with full-sentence training may lead to decreased performance on those sentences because they are overwhelmed during training (like with too long sentences in Study 1). b. Subjunctive sentences this may be the most pertinent because they are more complex- two different forms to use. c. Issues of saliency of cue b/w preterit/imperfect & subjunctive sentences- subjunctive may lead to more errors b/c it is not a salient form. d. Training on full sentences will lead to lower performance on novel sentences, but not on old sentences. (This would mean less generalizeability in full-sentence training…. If performance is lower overall, that suggests simple WM constraints and less effective training, rather than generalizeability issues)

Independent Variables

Using two constructions allows us to use a within-subject design, where each student is trained with both whole sentences and individual phrases. So, half the subjects will receive whole sentence training on subjunctive sentences and phrase training on preterit/imperfect sentences, and the other half will receive the opposite.

Dependent Variables

The dependent variables in this sentence are the same as in Study One: we are measuring fluency, in terms of pre-sentence pause, articulation time, and errors.

Connections to Other Studies

References

Future Plans