Theory Wiki - User contributions [en]

Mental rotations during vocabulary training

2007-04-18T12:29:24Z

Tokowicz@pitt.edu:

'''Robust Vocabulary Learning and Sentence Processing in French

Natasha Tokowicz and Tamar Degani'''

PI: Natasha Tokowicz

Others who have contributed 160 hours or more:
Graduate Students: Tamar Degani

Study Start Date: 8/1/07

Study End Date: 6/30/07

LearnLab Site and Courses: Pitt/CMU French On Line and Classroom

Number of Students: Spring2006: 13 started the tutor, but only 7 completed the three days. Fall2006: 37 students received a password and 32 began the tutor. Of these, 27 completed all three days, 5 completed 2 days.

Total Participant Hours for the study: above plus additional lab hours (approximately 100).

Data in the Data Shop - after completion of analysis--data were not collected in Data Shop format.

1. Abstract

This study focuses on testing a vocabulary training method with the goal of achieving robust learning (particularly in terms of longer-term retention). We teach students French vocabulary in association to pictures in unusual orientations (condition of interest) and in association to pictures in normal orientations, English words, and to a combination of both English words and pictures in unusual orientations (one presentation of each). In past research, learning vocabulary in association to pictures in unusual orientations was superior to learning vocabulary in association to pictures in usual orientations or to English words, when tested using recall of the new-language vocabulary. The probable benefit to learners is enhanced memory for the instructed vocabulary. Data collection has completed. Participants included students in French on-line and off-line courses at Pitt and CMU. We also collected data from a sample of Introductory Psychology students at Pitt; several returned for a 5-month retention test and those data are in the process of being analyzed.

Procedure: Students participated in three sessions approximately one week apart. Session 1 consisted of two cycles of training and a recognition test in which first an English word or a picture was presented, followed by a French word; students pushed a button to indicate whether the first item represented the meaning of the French word. Session 2 consisted of two cycles of training and a recall test in which an English word was presented and the students typed in the French translation. Session 3 was a test-only session in which students completed the recognition test followed by the recall test. At the end of Session 3, a language history questionnaire was completed.

2. Glossary

N/A

3. Research question

How is robust learning affected by vocabulary instruction methods that discourage activation of dominant-language words, and encourage activation of the appropriate knowledge component (here, meaning)?

4. Dependent variables

We tested learning immediately following training on Sessions 1 and 2, and alone on Session 3.

The recognition test includeed accuracy as the primary measure of robust learning. We operationalized accuracy using d-prime, which is a measure of sensitivity that takes response bias into account because second language learners are often biased to respond "yes" on yes/no decision tasks. The recall test also included accuracy as the primary measure of robust learning, operationalized as percent accuracy.

For both tests, reaction times on correct trials form the secondary measure of learning. Because responses are typed, these times include response formation as well as typing, therefore they are a somewhat less informative measure than response accuracy.

5. Independent variables

Training condition is a within-participants factor with 4 levels: English word, picture in normal orientation; picture in unusual orientation; English word and picture in unusual orientation.

6. Hypothesis

Second language vocabulary for picturable objects that are learned by associating second language words to pictures in unusual orientations (e.g., upside down) will be learned better than vocabulary learned by associating second language words to pictures in normal orientations (e.g., right side up) or to dominant language words.

Learning second language vocabulary in association to both pictures in unusual orientations and to dominant language words may assist learning more than the unusual orientation condition alone. In past research, the benefit for training in association to pictures in unusual orientations was limited to familiar pictures. Therefore, familiarization with the picture materials (accomplished via a word training trial) may help the learner take advantage of a subsequent training trial with the picture.

7. Explanation

Associating new second language vocabulary to pictures in unusual orientations reduces the likelihood that the dominant-language word will become active. Because robust learning of second language vocabulary requires that a strong connection be formed between the new word and its meaning, reducing the activation of over-practiced associations between that meaning and the dominant-language word should ensure a stronger connection for the second language word. In other words, only the appropriate knowledge components will become active in the unusual orientation condition. Such learning should form a strong association that endures despite testing conditions--even when tested by showing a dominant-language word (considered to be one of the most difficult tests of second language vocabulary knowledge), words learned in association to pictures in unusual orientations should have an advantage.

Results:
The preliminary results of 14 lab participants who used the tutor are as follows:
A higher d’ for words learned in the word and unusual picture condition on the recognition test in session 1, suggest that words presented with both the English translation and a picture in an unusual orientation were learned better. There were no other significant differences in the recognition test on of session 1, or on session 2. Performance of participants, as measured by accuracy on the recall test, was the same in all 4 conditions.

In the future we intend to further analyze the data we have collected from the students in the online and regular French classes, to examine whether robust learning of the words is found with these learners. Furthermore, we intend to examine robust learning by looking at the recognition and recall accuracy approximately 3 months after learning, with of a subset of the participants who used our tutor.

8. Descendents

N/A

9. Annotated bibliography

N/A

Mental rotations during vocabulary training

2007-04-10T12:15:27Z

Tokowicz@pitt.edu:

'''Robust Vocabulary Learning and Sentence Processing in French

Natasha Tokowicz and Tamar Degani'''

PI: Natasha Tokowicz

Others who have contributed 160 hours or more:
Graduate Students: Tamar Degani

Study Start Date: 8/1/07

Study End Date: 6/30/07

LearnLab Site and Courses: Pitt/CMU French On Line and Classroom

Number of Students: Spring2006: 13 started the tutor, but only 7 completed the three days. Fall2006: 37 students received a password and 32 began the tutor. Of these, 27 completed all three days, 5 completed 2 days.

Total Participant Hours for the study: above plus additional lab hours (approximately 100).

Data in the Data Shop - after completion of analysis--data were not collected in Data Shop format.

1. Abstract

This study focuses on testing a vocabulary training method with the goal of achieving robust learning (particularly in terms of longer-term retention). We teach students French vocabulary in association to pictures in unusual orientations (condition of interest) and in association to pictures in normal orientations, English words, and to a combination of both English words and pictures in unusual orientations (one presentation of each). In past research, learning vocabulary in association to pictures in unusual orientations was superior to learning vocabulary in association to pictures in usual orientations or to English words, when tested using recall of the new-language vocabulary. The probable benefit to learners is enhanced memory for the instructed vocabulary. Data collection has completed. Participants included students in French on-line and off-line courses at Pitt and CMU. We also collected data from a sample of Introductory Psychology students at Pitt; several returned for a 5-month retention test and those data are in the process of being analyzed.

Procedure: Students participated in three sessions approximately one week apart. Session 1 consisted of two cycles of training and a recognition test in which first an English word or a picture was presented, followed by a French word; students pushed a button to indicate whether the first item represented the meaning of the French word. Session 2 consisted of two cycles of training and a recall test in which an English word was presented and the students typed in the French translation. Session 3 was a test-only session in which students completed the recognition test followed by the recall test. At the end of Session 3, a language history questionnaire was completed.

2. Glossary

N/A

3. Research question

How is robust learning affected by vocabulary instruction methods that discourage activation of dominant-language words, and encourage activation of the appropriate knowledge component (here, meaning)?

4. Dependent variables

We tested learning immediately following training on Sessions 1 and 2, and alone on Session 3.

The recognition test includeed accuracy as the primary measure of robust learning. We operationalized accuracy using d-prime, which is a measure of sensitivity that takes response bias into account because second language learners are often biased to respond "yes" on yes/no decision tasks. The recall test also included accuracy as the primary measure of robust learning, operationalized as percent accuracy.

For both tests, reaction times on correct trials form the secondary measure of learning. Because responses are typed, these times include response formation as well as typing, therefore they are a somewhat less informative measure than response accuracy.

5. Independent variables

Training condition is a within-participants factor with 4 levels: English word, picture in normal orientation; picture in unusual orientation; English word and picture in unusual orientation.

6. Hypothesis

Second language vocabulary for picturable objects that are learned by associating second language words to pictures in unusual orientations (e.g., upside down) will be learned better than vocabulary learned by associating second language words to pictures in normal orientations (e.g., right side up) or to dominant language words.

Learning second language vocabulary in association to both pictures in unusual orientations and to dominant language words may assist learning more than the unusual orientation condition alone. In past research, the benefit for training in association to pictures in unusual orientations was limited to familiar pictures. Therefore, familiarization with the picture materials (accomplished via a word training trial) may help the learner take advantage of a subsequent training trial with the picture.

7. Explanation

Associating new second language vocabulary to pictures in unusual orientations reduces the likelihood that the dominant-language word will become active. Because robust learning of second language vocabulary requires that a strong connection be formed between the new word and its meaning, reducing the activation of over-practiced associations between that meaning and the dominant-language word should ensure a stronger connection for the second language word. In other words, only the appropriate knowledge components will become active in the unusual orientation condition. Such learning should form a strong association that endures despite testing conditions--even when tested by showing a dominant-language word (considered to be one of the most difficult tests of second language vocabulary knowledge), words learned in association to pictures in unusual orientations should have an advantage.

8. Descendents

N/A

9. Annotated bibliography

N/A

Mental rotations during vocabulary training

2007-04-10T12:15:13Z

Tokowicz@pitt.edu:

'''Robust Vocabulary Learning and Sentence Processing in French

Natasha Tokowicz and Tamar Degani'''

PI: Natasha Tokowicz

Others who have contributed 160 hours or more:
Graduate Students: Tamar Degani

Study Start Date: 8/1/07

Study End Date: 6/30/07

LearnLab Site and Courses: Pitt/CMU French On Line and Classroom

Number of Students: Spring2006: 13 started the tutor, but only 7 completed the three days. Fall2006: 37 students received a password and 32 began the tutor. Of these, 27 completed all three days, 5 completed 2 days.

Total Participant Hours for the study: above plus additional lab hours (approximately 100).

Data in the Data Shop - after completion of analysis--data were not collected in Data Shop format.

1. Abstract

This study focuses on testing a vocabulary training method with the goal of achieving robust learning (particularly in terms of longer-term retention). We teach students French vocabulary in association to pictures in unusual orientations (condition of interest) and in association to pictures in normal orientations, English words, and to a combination of both English words and pictures in unusual orientations (one presentation of each). In past research, learning vocabulary in association to pictures in unusual orientations was superior to learning vocabulary in association to pictures in usual orientations or to English words, when tested using recall of the new-language vocabulary. The probable benefit to learners is enhanced memory for the instructed vocabulary. Data collection has completed. Participants included students in French on-line and off-line courses at Pitt and CMU. We also collected data from a sample of Introductory Psychology students at Pitt; several returned for a 5-month retention test and those data are in the process of being analyzed.

Procedure: Students participated in three sessions approximately one week apart. Session 1 consisted of two cycles of training and a recognition test in which first an English word or a picture was presented, followed by a French word; students pushed a button to indicate whether the first item represented the meaning of the French word. Session 2 consisted of two cycles of training and a recall test in which an English word was presented and the students typed in the French translation. Session 3 was a test-only session in which students completed the recognition test followed by the recall test. At the end of Session 3, a language history questionnaire was completed.

2. Glossary

N/A

3. Research question

How is robust learning affected by vocabulary instruction methods that discourage activation of dominant-language words, and encourage activation of the appropriate knowledge component (here, meaning)?

4. Dependent variables

We tested learning immediately following training on Sessions 1 and 2, and alone on Session 3.

The recognition test includeed accuracy as the primary measure of robust learning. We operationalized accuracy using d-prime, which is a measure of sensitivity that takes response bias into account because second language learners are often biased to respond "yes" on yes/no decision tasks. The recall test also included accuracy as the primary measure of robust learning, operationalized as percent accuracy.

For both tests, reaction times on correct trials form the secondary measure of learning. Because responses are typed, these times include response formation as well as typing, therefore they are a somewhat less informative measure than response accuracy.

5. Independent variables

Training condition is a within-participants factor with 4 levels: English word, picture in normal orientation; picture in unusual orientation; English word and picture in unusual orientation.

6. Hypothesis

Second language vocabulary for picturable objects that are learned by associating second language words to pictures in unusual orientations (e.g., upside down) will be learned better than vocabulary learned by associating second language words to pictures in normal orientations (e.g., right side up) or to dominant language words.

Learning second language vocabulary in association to both pictures in unusual orientations and to dominant language words may assist learning more than the unusual orientation condition alone. In past research, the benefit for training in association to pictures in unusual orientations was limited to familiar pictures. Therefore, familiarization with the picture materials (accomplished via a word training trial) may help the learner take advantage of a subsequent training trial with the picture.

7. Explanation

Associating new second language vocabulary to pictures in unusual orientations reduces the likelihood that the dominant-language word will become active. Because robust learning of second language vocabulary requires that a strong connection be formed between the new word and its meaning, reducing the activation of over-practiced associations between that meaning and the dominant-language word should ensure a stronger connection for the second language word. In other words, only the appropriate knowledge components will become active in the unusual orientation condition. Such learning should form a strong association that endures despite testing conditions--even when tested by showing a dominant-language word (considered to be one of the most difficult tests of second language vocabulary knowledge), words learned in association to pictures in unusual orientations should have an advantage.

8. Descendents

N/A

9. Annotated bibliography

N/A

Other individuals who contributed substantially to this research: Tamar Degani, graduate student.

Mental rotations during vocabulary training

2007-04-10T12:14:26Z

Tokowicz@pitt.edu:

'''Robust Vocabulary Learning and Sentence Processing in French

Natasha Tokowicz and Tamar Degani'''

PI: Natasha Tokowicz
Others who have contributed 160 hours or more:
Faculty:
Post-Docs:
Graduate Students: Tamar Degani
Study Start Date: 8/1/07
Study End Date: 6/30/07
LearnLab Site and Courses: Pitt/CMU French On Line and Classroom
Number of Students: Spring2006: 13 started the tutor, but only 7 completed the three days. Fall2006: 37 students received a password and 32 began the tutor. Of these, 27 completed all three days, 5 completed 2 days.
Total Participant Hours for the study: above plus additional lab hours (approximately 100).
Data in the Data Shop - after completion of analysis--data were not collected in Data Shop format.

1. Abstract

This study focuses on testing a vocabulary training method with the goal of achieving robust learning (particularly in terms of longer-term retention). We teach students French vocabulary in association to pictures in unusual orientations (condition of interest) and in association to pictures in normal orientations, English words, and to a combination of both English words and pictures in unusual orientations (one presentation of each). In past research, learning vocabulary in association to pictures in unusual orientations was superior to learning vocabulary in association to pictures in usual orientations or to English words, when tested using recall of the new-language vocabulary. The probable benefit to learners is enhanced memory for the instructed vocabulary. Data collection has completed. Participants included students in French on-line and off-line courses at Pitt and CMU. We also collected data from a sample of Introductory Psychology students at Pitt; several returned for a 5-month retention test and those data are in the process of being analyzed.

Procedure: Students participated in three sessions approximately one week apart. Session 1 consisted of two cycles of training and a recognition test in which first an English word or a picture was presented, followed by a French word; students pushed a button to indicate whether the first item represented the meaning of the French word. Session 2 consisted of two cycles of training and a recall test in which an English word was presented and the students typed in the French translation. Session 3 was a test-only session in which students completed the recognition test followed by the recall test. At the end of Session 3, a language history questionnaire was completed.

2. Glossary

N/A

3. Research question

How is robust learning affected by vocabulary instruction methods that discourage activation of dominant-language words, and encourage activation of the appropriate knowledge component (here, meaning)?

4. Dependent variables

We tested learning immediately following training on Sessions 1 and 2, and alone on Session 3.

The recognition test includeed accuracy as the primary measure of robust learning. We operationalized accuracy using d-prime, which is a measure of sensitivity that takes response bias into account because second language learners are often biased to respond "yes" on yes/no decision tasks. The recall test also included accuracy as the primary measure of robust learning, operationalized as percent accuracy.

For both tests, reaction times on correct trials form the secondary measure of learning. Because responses are typed, these times include response formation as well as typing, therefore they are a somewhat less informative measure than response accuracy.

5. Independent variables

Training condition is a within-participants factor with 4 levels: English word, picture in normal orientation; picture in unusual orientation; English word and picture in unusual orientation.

6. Hypothesis

Second language vocabulary for picturable objects that are learned by associating second language words to pictures in unusual orientations (e.g., upside down) will be learned better than vocabulary learned by associating second language words to pictures in normal orientations (e.g., right side up) or to dominant language words.

Learning second language vocabulary in association to both pictures in unusual orientations and to dominant language words may assist learning more than the unusual orientation condition alone. In past research, the benefit for training in association to pictures in unusual orientations was limited to familiar pictures. Therefore, familiarization with the picture materials (accomplished via a word training trial) may help the learner take advantage of a subsequent training trial with the picture.

7. Explanation

Associating new second language vocabulary to pictures in unusual orientations reduces the likelihood that the dominant-language word will become active. Because robust learning of second language vocabulary requires that a strong connection be formed between the new word and its meaning, reducing the activation of over-practiced associations between that meaning and the dominant-language word should ensure a stronger connection for the second language word. In other words, only the appropriate knowledge components will become active in the unusual orientation condition. Such learning should form a strong association that endures despite testing conditions--even when tested by showing a dominant-language word (considered to be one of the most difficult tests of second language vocabulary knowledge), words learned in association to pictures in unusual orientations should have an advantage.

8. Descendents

N/A

9. Annotated bibliography

N/A

Other individuals who contributed substantially to this research: Tamar Degani, graduate student.

Mental rotations during vocabulary training

2007-04-10T12:10:52Z

Tokowicz@pitt.edu:

Robust Vocabulary Learning and Sentence Processing in French

Natasha Tokowicz and Tamar Degani

1. Abstract

This study focuses on testing a vocabulary training method with the goal of achieving robust learning (particularly in terms of longer-term retention). We teach students French vocabulary in association to pictures in unusual orientations (condition of interest) and in association to pictures in normal orientations, English words, and to a combination of both English words and pictures in unusual orientations (one presentation of each). In past research, learning vocabulary in association to pictures in unusual orientations was superior to learning vocabulary in association to pictures in usual orientations or to English words, when tested using recall of the new-language vocabulary. The probable benefit to learners is enhanced memory for the instructed vocabulary. Data collection has completed. Participants included students in French on-line and off-line courses at Pitt and CMU. We also collected data from a sample of Introductory Psychology students at Pitt; several returned for a 5-month retention test and those data are in the process of being analyzed.

Procedure: Students participated in three sessions approximately one week apart. Session 1 consisted of two cycles of training and a recognition test in which first an English word or a picture was presented, followed by a French word; students pushed a button to indicate whether the first item represented the meaning of the French word. Session 2 consisted of two cycles of training and a recall test in which an English word was presented and the students typed in the French translation. Session 3 was a test-only session in which students completed the recognition test followed by the recall test. At the end of Session 3, a language history questionnaire was completed.

2. Glossary

N/A

3. Research question

How is robust learning affected by vocabulary instruction methods that discourage activation of dominant-language words, and encourage activation of the appropriate knowledge component (here, meaning)?

4. Dependent variables

We tested learning immediately following training on Sessions 1 and 2, and alone on Session 3.

The recognition test includeed accuracy as the primary measure of robust learning. We operationalized accuracy using d-prime, which is a measure of sensitivity that takes response bias into account because second language learners are often biased to respond "yes" on yes/no decision tasks. The recall test also included accuracy as the primary measure of robust learning, operationalized as percent accuracy.

For both tests, reaction times on correct trials form the secondary measure of learning. Because responses are typed, these times include response formation as well as typing, therefore they are a somewhat less informative measure than response accuracy.

5. Independent variables

Training condition is a within-participants factor with 4 levels: English word, picture in normal orientation; picture in unusual orientation; English word and picture in unusual orientation.

6. Hypothesis

Second language vocabulary for picturable objects that are learned by associating second language words to pictures in unusual orientations (e.g., upside down) will be learned better than vocabulary learned by associating second language words to pictures in normal orientations (e.g., right side up) or to dominant language words.

Learning second language vocabulary in association to both pictures in unusual orientations and to dominant language words may assist learning more than the unusual orientation condition alone. In past research, the benefit for training in association to pictures in unusual orientations was limited to familiar pictures. Therefore, familiarization with the picture materials (accomplished via a word training trial) may help the learner take advantage of a subsequent training trial with the picture.

7. Explanation

Associating new second language vocabulary to pictures in unusual orientations reduces the likelihood that the dominant-language word will become active. Because robust learning of second language vocabulary requires that a strong connection be formed between the new word and its meaning, reducing the activation of over-practiced associations between that meaning and the dominant-language word should ensure a stronger connection for the second language word. In other words, only the appropriate knowledge components will become active in the unusual orientation condition. Such learning should form a strong association that endures despite testing conditions--even when tested by showing a dominant-language word (considered to be one of the most difficult tests of second language vocabulary knowledge), words learned in association to pictures in unusual orientations should have an advantage.

8. Descendents

N/A

9. Annotated bibliography

N/A

Other individuals who contributed substantially to this research: Tamar Degani, graduate student.

Refinement and Fluency

2007-02-12T15:21:33Z

Tokowicz@pitt.edu: /* Descendents */

== The PSLC Refinement and Fluency cluster ==

=== Abstract ===
The studies in this cluster concern the design and organization of instructional activities to facilitate the acquisition, [[refinement]], and fluent control of critical [[knowledge components]]. The research of the cluster addresses a series of core propositions, including but not limited to the following.

1. task analysis: To design effective instruction, we must analyze learning tasks into their simplest components.

2. fluency from basics: For true fluency, higher level skills must be grounded on well-practiced lower level skills.

3. scheduling of practice: The optimal scheduling of practice uses principles of memory [[consolidation]] to maximize robust learning and achieve mastery.

4. [[explicit instruction]]: Explicit rule-based instruction facilitates the acquisition of specific skills, but only if the rules are simple.

5. [[implicit instruction]]: On the other hand, implicit instruction or exposure serves to foster the development of initial familiarity with larger patterns.

6. immediacy of feedback: A corollary of the emphasis on in vivo evaluation, scheduling, and explicit instruction is the idea that immediate feedback facilitates learning.

7. [[cue validity]]: In both explicit and implicit instruction, cue validity plays a central role in determining ease of learning of knowledge components.

8. focusing: Instruction that focuses the learner's attention on valid cues leads to more robust learning than unfocused instruction or instruction that focuses on less valid cues.

9. learning to learn: The acquisition of skills such as analysis, help-seeking, or advance organizers can promote future learning.

10. [[transfer]]: A learner's earlier knowledge places strong constraints on new learning, promoting some forms of learning, while blocking others.

The overall hypothesis is that instruction that systematically reflects the complex [[features]] of targeted knowledge in relation to the learner’s existing knowledge leads to more robust learning than instruction that does not. The principle is that the gap between targeted knowledge and existing knowledge needs to be directly reflected in the organization of instructional events. This organization includes the structure of knowledge components selected for instruction, the scheduling of learning events, practice, recall opportunities, explicit and implicit presentations, and other activities.

This hypothesis can be rephrased in terms of the PSLC general hypothesis, which is that [[robust learning]] occurs when the [[learning event space]] is designed to include appropriate target paths, and when students are encouraged to take those paths. The studies in this cluster focus on the formulation of well specified target paths with highly predictable learning outcomes.

===Significance===
A core theme in this cluster is that instruction in basic skills can facilitate the acquisition and refinement of knowledge and prepare the learner for [[fluency]]-enhancing practice. Instruction that provides practice and feedback for basic skills on a schedule that closely matches observed student abilities is important for this goal, and can be effectively delivered by computer. In the area of second language learning, the strengths of computerized instruction are matched by certain weaknesses. In particular, computerized tutors are not yet good at speech recognition, making it difficult to assess student production. Moreover, contact with a human teacher can increase the breadth of language usage, as well as motivation. Therefore, an optimal environment for language learning would combine the strengths of computerized instruction with those of classroom instruction. It is possible that a similar analysis will apply to science and math.

=== Glossary ===
[[:Category:Refinement and Fluency|Refinement and Fluency]] glossary.

=== Research question ===
The overall research question is how can instruction optimally organize the presentation of complex targeted knowledge, taking into account the learner’s existing knowledge as well as an analysis of the target domain? In examining this general question, the studies focus on the following dimensions of instructional organization, among others: the demands placed on learners of specific knowledge components, the scheduling of practice, the timing and extent of explicit teaching events relative to implicit learning opportunities, and the role of feedback.

=== Independent variables ===
At a general level, the research varies the organization of instructional events. This organization variable is typically based on alternative analyses of task demands, relevant knowledge components, and learner background.

=== Dependent variables ===
The dependent variables in these studies assess learner performance during learning events and following learning. Typical measures are percentage correct and number of learning trials or time to reach a given standard of performance. Response times are also measured in some cases.

=== Hypotheses ===
The overall hypothesis is that instruction that systematically reflects the complex features of targeted knowledge in relation to the learner’s existing knowledge leads to more robust learning than instruction that does not. A corollary of this hypothesis is that learning is increased by instructional activities that require the learner to attend to the relevant knowledge components of a learning task.

Specific hypotheses about the organization of instruction derive from task analyses of specific domain knowledge and the existing knowledge of the learner. A background assumption for most studies is that fluency is grounded in well-practiced lower level skills. A few examples of specific hypotheses are as follows:

1. scheduling of practice hypothesis: The optimal scheduling of practice uses principles of memory consolidation to maximize robust learning and achieve mastery.

2. Resonance hypothesis: The acquisition of knowledge components can be facilitated by evoking associations between divergent coding systems.

3. explicit instruction hypothesis: Explicit rule-based instruction facilitates the acquisition of specific skills, but only if the rules are simple.

4. implicit instruction hypothesis: Implicit instruction or exposure serves to foster the development of initial familiarity with larger patterns.

5. Feedback hypothesis: Instruction that provides immediate, diagnostic feedback will be superior to instruction that does not.

6. cue validity hypothesis: In both explicit and implicit instruction, cue validity plays a central role in determining ease of learning of knowledge components.

7. Focusing hypothesis: Instruction that focuses the learner's attention on valid cues will lead to more robust learning than unfocused instruction or instruction that focuses on less valid cues.

8. learning to learn hypothesis: The acquisition of skills such as analysis, help-seeking, or advance organizers can promote future learning.

9. Learner knowledge hypothesis: A learner's existing knowledge places strong constraints on new learning, promoting some forms of learning, while blocking others.

=== Explanation ===
All knowledge involves content and procedures that are specific to a domain. An analysis of the domain reveals the complexities that a learner of a given background will face and the knowledge components that are part of the overall complexity. Accordingly, the organization of instruction is critical in allowing the learner to attend to the critical valid features of knowledge components and to integrated them in authentic performance. Acquiring valid features and strengthening their associations facilitates retrieval during subsequent assessment and instruction, leading to more robust learning. Additionally, robust learning is increased by the scheduling of learning events that promotes the [[long-term retention]] of the associations.

=== Descendents ===

* [[Using syntactic priming to increase robust learning]] (De Jong, Perfetti, DeKeyser)

* [[Learning the role of radicals in reading Chinese]] (Liu et al.)

* [[Basic skills training|French dictation training]] (MacWhinney)

*[[French gender cues]] (Presson-MacWhinney)

*[[Chinese pinyin dictation]] (Zhang-MacWhinney)

*[[Japanese fluency]] (Yoshimura-MacWhinney)

* [[Intelligent_Writing_Tutor | First language effects on second language grammar acquisition]] (Mitamura-Wylie)

* [[Optimizing the practice schedule]] (Pavlik-MacWhinney)

*[[The_Help_Tutor__Roll_Aleven_McLaren|Tutoring a meta-cognitive skill: Help-seeking (Roll, Aleven & McLaren)]] [Was in Coordinative Learning and in Interactive Communication]

*[[Composition_Effect__Kao_Roll|What is difficult about composite problems? (Kao, Roll)]]

* [[Mental rotations during vocabulary training]] (Tokowicz-Degani)

* [[arithmetical fluency project]] (Fiez)

* [[HandwritingEquationSolving|A multimodal (handwriting) interface for solving equations]] (Anthony, Yang, & Koedinger) [Was in CL]

* [[Fostering fluency in second language learning]] (De Jong, Perfetti)

=== Annotated bibliography ===
Forthcoming

[[Category:Cluster]]

Mental rotations during vocabulary training

2006-11-26T19:19:18Z

Tokowicz@pitt.edu:

Robust Vocabulary Learning and Sentence Processing in French

Natasha Tokowicz and Tamar Degani

1. Abstract

This study focuses on testing a vocabulary training method with the goal of achieving robust learning (particularly in terms of longer-term retention). We teach students French vocabulary in association to pictures in unusual orientations (condition of interest) and in association to pictures in normal orientations, English words, and to a combination of both English words and pictures in unusual orientations (one presentation of each). In past research, learning vocabulary in association to pictures in unusual orientations was superior to learning vocabulary in association to pictures in usual orientations or to English words, when tested using recall of the new-language vocabulary. The probable benefit to learners is enhanced memory for the instructed vocabulary. Data collection is in progress with students in French on-line and off-line courses at Pitt and CMU. We are also collecting data from a sample of Introductory Psychology students at Pitt.

Procedure: Students participate in three sessions approximately one week apart. Session 1 consists of two cycles of training and a recognition test in which first an English word or a picture is presented, followed by a French word; students push a button to indicate whether the first item represents the meaning of the French word. Session 2 consists of two cycles of training and a recall test in which an English word is presented and the students type in the French translation. Session 3 is a test-only session in which students complete the recognition test followed by the recall test. At the end of Session 3, a language history questionnaire is completed.

2. Glossary

N/A

3. Research question

How is robust learning affected by vocabulary instruction methods that discourage activation of dominant-language words?

4. Dependent variables

We test learning immediately following training on Sessions 1 and 2, and alone on Session 3.

The recognition test includes accuracy as the primary measure of robust learning. We operationalize accuracy using d-prime which is a measure of sensitivity that takes response bias into account because second language learners are often biased to respond "yes" on yes/no decision tasks. The recall test also includes accuracy as the primary measure of robust learning, operationalized as percent accuracy.

For both tests, reaction times on correct trials form the secondary measure of learning. Because responses are typed, these times include response formation as well as typing, therefore they are a somewhat less informative measure than response accuracy.

5. Independent variables

Training condition is a within-participants factor with 4 levels: English word, picture in normal orientation; picture in unusual orientation; English word and picture in unusual orientation

6. Hypothesis

Second language vocabulary for picturable objects that are learned by associating second language words to pictures in unusual orientations (e.g., upside down) will be learned better than vocabulary learned by associating second language words to pictures in normal orientations (e.g., right side up) or to dominant language words.

It is not clear how learning second language vocabulary in association to both pictures in unusual orientations and to dominant words will affect learning, however this condition was suggested by Pavlik's work on Chinese vocabulary training and is included here for comparison purposes.

7. Explanation

Associating new second language vocabulary to pictures in unusual orientations reduces the likelihood that the dominant-language word will become active. Because robust learning of second language vocabulary requires that a strong connection be formed between the new word and its meaning, reducing the activation of over-practiced associations between that meaning and the dominant-language word should ensure a stronger connection for the second language word. In other words, only the appropriate knowledge components will become active in the unusual orientation condition. Such learning should form a strong association that endures despite testing conditions--even when tested by showing a dominant-language word (considered to be one of the most difficult tests of second language vocabulary knowledge), words learned in association to pictures in unusual orientations should have an advantage.

8. Descendents

N/A

9. Annotated bibliography

N/A