Theory Wiki - User contributions [en]

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-26T16:35:34Z

Kaye: /* Explanation */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results revealed that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After viewing each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. The experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. In particular, we are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]] (as assessed by immediate [[transfer]] questions). Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Further Information===
====Connections====
Visual Representations for Robust Learning in Other Domains:
*Our research seeks to better understand the effectiveness of different types of visual representations in terms of the scientific process under review. Understanding when graphics are useful will prevent the production of unnecessary media as well as inform those who create educational materials. This study is closely related to other PSLC projects investigating the use of visual representations to support [[robust learning]]. In [[Contiguous Representations for Robust Learning (Aleven & Butcher)]], researchers are investigating how [[visual-verbal coordination]] supports [[robust learning]] of geometry concepts. Like the purpose of this study, Aleven & Butcher seek to inform the makers of educational technologies in domains that use visual representations, such as science or math.
*Another closely related PSLC project is [[Visual Representations in Science Learning|Visual Representations in Science Learning (Davenport, Klahr, & Koedinger)]]. In a series of ongoing studies, Davenport et al. are exploring how and why the coordination of visual and verbal information supports [[robust learning]] of chemical concepts.
 

====References====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegarty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors. ''Educational Psychology Review''.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.
 

====Future Plans: Fall 2007====
As only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far, these results are preliminary. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007.

 
[[Category:Study]]

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-26T16:35:20Z

Kaye: /* Explanation */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results revealed that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After viewing each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. The experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. In particular, we are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]] (as assessed by immediate, [[transfer]] questions). Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Further Information===
====Connections====
Visual Representations for Robust Learning in Other Domains:
*Our research seeks to better understand the effectiveness of different types of visual representations in terms of the scientific process under review. Understanding when graphics are useful will prevent the production of unnecessary media as well as inform those who create educational materials. This study is closely related to other PSLC projects investigating the use of visual representations to support [[robust learning]]. In [[Contiguous Representations for Robust Learning (Aleven & Butcher)]], researchers are investigating how [[visual-verbal coordination]] supports [[robust learning]] of geometry concepts. Like the purpose of this study, Aleven & Butcher seek to inform the makers of educational technologies in domains that use visual representations, such as science or math.
*Another closely related PSLC project is [[Visual Representations in Science Learning|Visual Representations in Science Learning (Davenport, Klahr, & Koedinger)]]. In a series of ongoing studies, Davenport et al. are exploring how and why the coordination of visual and verbal information supports [[robust learning]] of chemical concepts.
 

====References====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegarty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors. ''Educational Psychology Review''.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.
 

====Future Plans: Fall 2007====
As only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far, these results are preliminary. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007.

 
[[Category:Study]]

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-26T14:47:26Z

Kaye: /* Connections */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After viewing each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Further Information===
====Connections====
Visual Representations for Robust Learning in Other Domains:
*Our research seeks to understand more about the effectiveness of different types of visual representations in terms of scientific process being studied. Understanding when graphics are useful will prevent the production of unnecessary media as well as inform those who create educational materials. This study is closely related to other PSLC projects investigating the use of visual representations to support [[robust learning]]. In [[Contiguous Representations for Robust Learning (Aleven & Butcher)]], researchers are investigating how [[visual-verbal coordination]] supports [[robust learning]] of geometry concepts. Like the purpose of this study, Aleven & Butcher seek to inform the makers of educational technologies in domains that use visual representations, such as science or math.
*Another closely related PSLC project is [[Visual Representations in Science Learning|Visual Representations in Science Learning (Davenport, Klahr, & Koedinger)]]. In a series of ongoing studies, Davenport et al. are exploring how and why the coordination of visual and verbal information supports [[robust learning]] of chemical concepts.
 

====References====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegerty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors. ''Educational Psychology Review''.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.
 

====Future Plans: Fall 2007====
As only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far, these results are preliminary. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007.

 
[[Category:Study]]

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-26T14:46:40Z

Kaye: /* Connections */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After viewing each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Further Information===
====Connections====
Visual Representations for Robust Learning in Other Domains:
*Our research seeks to understand more about the effectiveness of different types of visual representations in terms of scientific process being studied. Understanding when graphics are useful will prevent the production of unnecessary media as well as inform those who create educational materials. This study is closely related to other PSLC projects investigating the use of visual representations to support [[robust learning]]. In [[Contiguous Representations for Robust Learning (Aleven & Butcher)]], researchers are investigating how [[visual-verbal coordination]] supports [[robust learning]] of geometry concepts. Like the purpose of this study, Aleven & Butcher seek to inform the makers of educational technologies in domains that use visual represenatations, such as science or math.
*Another closely related PSLC project is [[Visual Representations in Science Learning|Visual Representations in Science Learning (Davenport, Klahr, & Koedinger)]]. In a series of ongoing studies, Davenport et al. are exploring how and why the coordination of visual and verbal information supports [[robust learning]] of chemical concepts.
 

====References====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegerty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors. ''Educational Psychology Review''.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.
 

====Future Plans: Fall 2007====
As only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far, these results are preliminary. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007.

 
[[Category:Study]]

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-26T14:41:20Z

Kaye: /* Independent Variables */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After viewing each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Further Information===
====Connections====
Visual Representations for Robust Learning in Other Domains:
*Our research seeks to understand more about the effectiveness of different types of visual representations in terms of scientific process being studied. Understanding when graphics are useful will prevent the production of unnecessary media as well as inform those who create educational materials. This study is closely related to other PSLC projects investigating the use of visual representations to support [[robust learning]]. In [[Contiguous Representations for Robust Learning (Aleven & Butcher)]], researchers are investigating how [[visual-verbal coordination]] supports [[robust learning]] of geometry concepts. Like this study, Aleven & Buthcher seek to inform the makers of educational technologies in domains that use visual represenatations, such as science or math.
*Another closely related PSLC project is [[Visual Representations in Science Learning|Visual Representations in Science Learning (Davenport, Klahr, & Koedinger)]]. In a series of ongoing studies, Davenport et al. are exploring how and why the coordination of visual and verbal information supports [[robust learning]] of chemical concepts.
 

====References====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegerty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors. ''Educational Psychology Review''.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.
 

====Future Plans: Fall 2007====
As only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far, these results are preliminary. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007.

 
[[Category:Study]]

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-26T14:28:39Z

Kaye: /* Further Information */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Further Information===
====Connections====
Visual Representations for Robust Learning in Other Domains:
*Our research seeks to understand more about the effectiveness of different types of visual representations in terms of scientific process being studied. Understanding when graphics are useful will prevent the production of unnecessary media as well as inform those who create educational materials. This study is closely related to other PSLC projects investigating the use of visual representations to support [[robust learning]]. In [[Contiguous Representations for Robust Learning (Aleven & Butcher)]], researchers are investigating how [[visual-verbal coordination]] supports [[robust learning]] of geometry concepts. Like this study, Aleven & Buthcher seek to inform the makers of educational technologies in domains that use visual represenatations, such as science or math.
*Another closely related PSLC project is [[Visual Representations in Science Learning|Visual Representations in Science Learning (Davenport, Klahr, & Koedinger)]]. In a series of ongoing studies, Davenport et al. are exploring how and why the coordination of visual and verbal information supports [[robust learning]] of chemical concepts.
 

====References====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegerty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors. ''Educational Psychology Review''.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.
 

====Future Plans: Fall 2007====
As only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far, these results are preliminary. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007.

 
[[Category:Study]]

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-26T14:27:33Z

Kaye: /* Further Information */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Further Information===
====Connections====
Visual Representations for Robust Learning in Other Domains:
*Our research seeks to understand more about the effectiveness of different types of visual representations in terms of scientific process being studied. Understanding when graphics are useful will prevent the production of unnecessary media as well as inform those who create educational materials. This study is closely related to other PSLC projects investigating the use of visual representations to support [[robust learning]]. In [[Contiguous Representations for Robust Learning (Aleven & Butcher)]], researchers are investigating how [[visual-verbal coordination]] supports [[robust learning]] of geometry concepts. Like this study, Aleven & Buthcher seek to inform the makers of educational technologies in domains that use visual represenatations, such as science or math.
*Another closely related PSLC project is [[Visual Representations in Science Learning|Visual Representations in Science Learning (Davenport, Klahr, & Koedinger)]]. In a series of ongoing studies, Davenport et al. are exploring how and why the coordination of visual and verbal information supports [[robust learning]] of chemical concepts.
 

====References====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegerty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors. ''Educational Psychology Review''.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.

 

====Future Plans: Fall 2007====
As only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far, these results are preliminary. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007.

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-26T14:26:20Z

Kaye: /* Connections */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Further Information===
====Connections====
Visual Representations for Robust Learning in Other Domains:
*Our research seeks to understand more about the effectiveness of different types of visual representations in terms of scientific process being studied. Understanding when graphics are useful will prevent the production of unnecessary media as well as inform those who create educational materials. This study is closely related to other PSLC projects investigating the use of visual representations to support [[robust learning]]. In [[Contiguous Representations for Robust Learning (Aleven & Butcher)]], researchers are investigating how [[visual-verbal coordination]] supports [[robust learning]] of geometry concepts. Like this study, Aleven & Buthcher seek to inform the makers of educational technologies in domains that use visual represenatations, such as science or math.
*Another closely related PSLC project is [[Visual Representations in Science Learning|Visual Representations in Science Learning (Davenport, Klahr, & Koedinger)]]. In a series of ongoing studies, Davenport et al. are exploring how and why the coordination of visual and verbal information supports [[robust learning]] of chemical concepts.
 

====References====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegerty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors. ''Educational Psychology Review''.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-26T14:20:02Z

Kaye: /* Connections */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Further Information===
====Connections====
Visual Representations for Robust Learning in Other Domains:
=====Visual Representations for Robust Learning in Other Domains:=====
*Our research seeks to understand more about the effectiveness of different types of visual representations in terms of the scientific process being studied. This study is closely related to other PSLC projects investigating the use of visual representations to support [[robust learning]]. In [[Contiguous Representations for Robust Learning (Aleven & Butcher)]], researchers investigated
*Another closely related PSLC project is [[Visual Representations in Science Learning|Visual Representations in Science Learning (Davenport, Klahr, & Koedinger)]]. In a series of ongoing studies, Davenport et al. are exploring how and why [[visual-verbal coordination]] may help support [[robust learning]] of chemical concepts.
 

====References====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegerty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors. ''Educational Psychology Review''.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-26T14:16:53Z

Kaye: /* Connections */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Further Information===
====Connections====
Visual Representations for Robust Learning in Other Domains:
*Our research investigates the effectiveness of visual representations in terms of graphic type and the scientific process being studied. This study is closely related to other PSLC projects investigating the use of visual representations to support [[robust learning]]. In [[Contiguous Representations for Robust Learning (Aleven & Butcher)]]
*Another closely related PSLC project is [[Visual Representations in Science Learning|Visual Representations in Science Learning (Davenport, Klahr, & Koedinger)]]. In a series of ongoing studies, Davenport et al. are exploring how and why [[visual-verbal coordination]] may help support [[robust learning]] of chemical concepts.
 

====References====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegerty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors. ''Educational Psychology Review''.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-26T14:16:37Z

Kaye: /* Connections */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Further Information===
====Connections====
Visual Representations for Robust Learning in Other Domains:
*Our research investigates the effectiveness of visual representations in terms of graphic type and the scientific process being studied. This research is closely related to other PSLC projects investigating the use of visual representations to support [[robust learning]]. In [[Contiguous Representations for Robust Learning (Aleven & Butcher)]]
*Another closely related PSLC project is [[Visual Representations in Science Learning|Visual Representations in Science Learning (Davenport, Klahr, & Koedinger)]]. In a series of ongoing studies, Davenport et al. are exploring how and why [[visual-verbal coordination]] may help support [[robust learning]] of chemical concepts.
 

====References====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegerty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors. ''Educational Psychology Review''.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-26T14:11:34Z

Kaye: /* Connections */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Further Information===
====Connections====
Visual Representations for Robust Learning in Other Domains:
*Our research investigates the effectiveness of visual representations in terms of types of graphic and the scientific process being studied. This research is closely related to other PSLC projects investigating the use of visual representations to support [[robust learning]]. In [[Contiguous Representations for Robust Learning (Aleven & Butcher)]]
*Another closely related PSLC project is [[Visual Representations in Science Learning|Visual Representations in Science Learning (Davenport, Klahr, & Koedinger)]]. In a series of ongoing studies, Davenport et al. are exploring how and why [[visual-verbal coordination]] may help support [[robust learning]] of chemical concepts.
 

====References====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegerty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors. ''Educational Psychology Review''.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-26T14:11:25Z

Kaye: /* Connections */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Further Information===
====Connections====
Visual Representations for Robust Learning in Other Domains:
*Our research investigates the effectiveness of visual representations in terms of types of graphic and the scientific process being studied. This research is closely related to other PSLC projects investigating the use of visual representations to support [[robust learning]]. In *[[Contiguous Representations for Robust Learning (Aleven & Butcher)]]
*Another closely related PSLC project is [[Visual Representations in Science Learning|Visual Representations in Science Learning (Davenport, Klahr, & Koedinger)]]. In a series of ongoing studies, Davenport et al. are exploring how and why [[visual-verbal coordination]] may help support [[robust learning]] of chemical concepts.
 

====References====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegerty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors. ''Educational Psychology Review''.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-26T14:10:56Z

Kaye: /* Connections */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Further Information===
====Connections====
Visual Representations for Robust Learning in Other Domains:
*Our research investigates the effectiveness of visual representations in terms of types of graphic and the scientific process being studied. This research is closely related to other PSLC projects investigating the use of visual representations to support [[robust learning]]. In [[Contiguous Representations for Robust Learning]]
*Another closely related PSLC project is [[Visual Representations in Science Learning|Visual Representations in Science Learning (Davenport, Klahr, & Koedinger)]]. In a series of ongoing studies, Davenport et al. are exploring how and why [[visual-verbal coordination]] may help support [[robust learning]] of chemical concepts.
 

====References====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegerty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors. ''Educational Psychology Review''.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-26T14:05:20Z

Kaye: /* Connections */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Further Information===
====Connections====
Visual Representations for Robust Learning in Other Domains:
*Our research investigates the effectiveness of visual representations in terms of types of graphic and the scientific process being studied. This research is closely related to other PSLC projects investigating the use of visual representations to support [[robust learning]] in other domains. In [[Visual Representations in Science Learning]], Davenport, Klahr, & Koedinger are exploring how [[visual-verbal coordination]] may help support [[robust learning]] of chemical concepts.

 

====References====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegerty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors. ''Educational Psychology Review''.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.

Contiguous Representations for Robust Learning (Aleven & Butcher)

2007-07-26T14:03:19Z

Kaye: /* Connections */

== Learning with Diagrams in Geometry: Strategic Support for Robust Learning ==
''Vincent Aleven and Kirsten Butcher''

=== Summary Table ===
====Study 1====
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PIs''' || Vincent Aleven & Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Graduate Students: Andy Tzou (CMU HCII) 
Research Programmers/Associates: Octav Popescu (Research Programmer, CMU HCII), Grace Lee Leonard (Research Associate, CMU HCII), Thomas Bolster (Research Associate, CMU HCII)

|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || January 24, 2006
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || February 22, 2006
|-
| '''LearnLab Site''' || Central Westmoreland Career & Technology Center (CWCTC)
|-
| '''LearnLab Course''' || Geometry
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || 65
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 390
|-
| '''DataShop''' || Log data is uploaded and available in the DataShop
|}
 
====Study 2====
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PIs''' || Vincent Aleven & Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Graduate Students: Andy Tzou (CMU HCII), Carl Angioli (CMU HCII), Michael Nugent (Pitt, Computer Science) 
Research Programmers/Associates: Octav Popescu (Research Programmer, CMU HCII), Grace Lee Leonard (Research Associate, CMU HCII), Thomas Bolster (Research Associate, CMU HCII)

|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || April 28, 2006
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || May 26, 2006
|-
| '''LearnLab Site''' || Central Westmoreland Career & Technology Center (CWCTC)
|-
| '''LearnLab Course''' || Geometry
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || 130
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 780
|-
| '''DataShop''' || Log data is uploaded and available in the DataShop
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Does integration of visual and verbal knowledge during learning support deep understanding? Can student interactions with visual information during problem-solving support [[robust learning]]? The overall goal of this project is to gain a better understanding of 1) visual and verbal [[knowledge components]] in a problem-solving environment and, 2) how interacting with visual information can support the development of deep understanding. Ultimately, we are interested in [[coordination]] and [[integration]] processes in learning with visual and verbal [[knowledge components]], and how these processes may support [[robust learning]].

We are using the Geometry Cognitive Tutor as a research vehicle for our project. In geometry, visual information is represented in a problem diagram and verbal/symbolic information is represented in text that contains given and goal information as well as in conceptual rules/principles of geometry. The research described here investigates whether [[implicit instruction]] (via direct interaction with visual information during learning) can support [[robust learning]] through [[Visual-verbal coordination|visual-verbal coordination]] during learning. This [[implicit instruction]] is achieved via interactive instructional events in an intelligent tutoring environment, where students receive feedback on error and perform a simple (menu-based) form of [[self-explanation]] during practice.

=== Background & Significance ===
In this research, we draw upon previous work in learning with [[multimedia sources]], [[self-explanation]]s, and Cognitive Tutors. We hypothesize that two key cognitive processes support integrated knowledge development and [[robust learning]] when using visual and verbal representations. These processes are: 1) Successful [[mapping]] between visual and verbal information, and 2) [[Integration]] processes that combine visual and verbal representations into integrated [[knowledge components]]. Previous research has suggested that contiguous representations -- those that provide close temporal and physical proximity between visual and verbal elements during learning -- can support understanding of multimedia materials (e.g., Mayer, 2001); these benefits have been hypothesized to result from the easing of cognitive load required for [[mapping]] between visual and verbal information.

We are investigating if these benefits can be seen during real classroom learning when students engage in extended practice with learning materials. Our research examines the potential benefits of [[contiguity]] during intelligent tutoring for robust learning in classroom environments.

We hypothesize that [[implicit instruction]] that supports interaction with visual information will support [[coordination]] between and [[integration]] of visual and verbal information, promoting [[robust learning]] as measured by knowledge [[retention]] and [[transfer]].

By [[coordination]], we mean the processes that support [[mapping]] between relevant visual and verbal information as well as the processes that keep relevant [[knowledge components]] active. For example, in geometry a student needs to map between text references to angles and their location in a diagram and will need to maintain the numerical (given or solved) value of that angle to use in problem solving. By [[visual-verbal integration]], we mean knowledge construction events that involve generating a representation that includes both visual and verbal knowledge components. For example, in geometry a student may need to construct an understanding of linear angles that includes both a verbal definition (e.g., “two adjacent angles that form a line”) and a visual situation description (e.g., a visual representation of the two angles formed by intersection of a line).

In the context of the Geometry Cognitive Tutor, [[contiguity]] is achieved by placing related representations, such as a diagram and a workspace in which answers are entered, in close proximity that reduces (and in some cases, removes) the need for [[mapping]] between visual and verbal information. Although contiguous representations may reduce the initial cognitive load associated with [[mapping]] between representations, cognitive load demands may be less influential in classroom environments where practice is extended and distributed (Olina, Reiser, Huang, Lim, & Park, 2006). Thus, we assume that contiguous representations can support robust learning by promoting [[integration]] of visual and verbal information during practice. That is, [[contiguity]] may support students' connection between and [[integration]] of visual and verbal information leading to more robust knowledge of geometry principles. If these assumptions are true, we would expect to see similar performance on practiced problems for students who trained with [[Contiguous Representation|contiguous]] vs. noncontiguous representations. However, we would expect students using the contiguous representations to demonstrate better knowledge [[transfer]].

=== Glossary ===
See [[:Category:Visual-Verbal Learning (Aleven & Butcher Project)|Visual-Verbal Learning Project Glossary]]

=== Research questions ===
#Do [[Contiguous Representation|contiguous representations]] in geometry support students' [[Retention|retention]] and [[transfer]] of [[knowledge components]]?
#Are the effects of [[Contiguous Representation|contiguous representations]] stronger for [[transfer]] than for [[retention]]?

=== Dependent variables ===
*Pretest, [[normal post-test]], and [[transfer]] test measuring student performance on:
**Problem-solving items isomorphic to the practiced problems ([[normal post-test]])
**Complex and demanding problem-solving items unlike those seen during problem practice ([[transfer]])

*Log data collected during tutor use, used to assess:
**Learning curves
**Time on task
**Error rates
**Latency of responses

*(Planned) Log data collected during subsequent tutor use, will use to assess:
**[[Accelerated future learning]]
***(Note: Not available for studies conducted in "Circles" unit of the Geometry Cognitive Tutor, since the Circles unit is completed at the end of the school year.)

=== Independent Variables ===
*Contiguity of Representation
:''Contiguous representation (students work in diagram) vs. Non-contiguous representation (students work in separate table)''

Figure 1. Noncontiguous representation: Screen shot of tutor interface. 
[[Image:Butcher_TableScreenShot2.jpg]]

Figure 2. Contiguous representation: Screen shot of tutor interface. 
[[Image:Butcher_DiagramScreenShot.jpg]]

=== Hypotheses ===

*Contiguous representations increase strategic inferences and [[integration]] of visual and verbal [[knowledge components]] during problem-solving, thus supporting knowledge transfer.

=== Findings ===

Current findings suggest that interaction with visual representations during problem-solving supports deep [[transfer]] during learning.

====Study 1 (In Vivo, Geometry Cognitive Tutor) ====
*Summary
**In Vivo Study: 10th grade geometry classes in rural Pennsylvannia school
**Domain: Angles curriculum in the Geometry Cognitive Tutor
**Grade-matched pairs of students were randomly assigned to one of two conditions:
***Diagram (Contiguous) Condition: Students interacted directly with geometry diagrams and accepted answers are displayed directly in the diagram
***Table (Noncontiguous) Condition: Students work separate from the diagrams, in a distally located table

*Findings
**No overall effect of experimental condition on students' performance on geometry answers or reasons at posttest
**Although working in the Diagram condition improved lower-knowledge students' explanations at posttest, higher-knowledge students performed best when working in the Table condition. The result was evidenced by a significant 3-way interaction of Test Time (Pre- vs. Posttest) X Condition (Table vs. Diagram) X Prior Knowledge (Higher vs. Lower) for students' performance on geometry rules at posttest (F(1,39) = 6.2, p < .02).

====Study 2 (In Vivo, Geometry Cognitive Tutor) ====
*Summary
**In Vivo Study: 10th grade geometry classes in rural Pennsylvannia school
**Domain: Circles curriculum in the Geometry Cognitive Tutor
**Assessment was expanded to include not only answers and explanations for problem-solving items (as in Study 1), but also explanations on deep transfer items (explanations of unsolvable problems) and non-numerical reasoning items (true/false items that require students to judge whether a geometry rule is appropriate to relate named diagram elements).
**Grade-matched pairs of students were randomly assigned to one of two conditions:
***Diagram (Contiguous) Condition: Students interacted directly with geometry diagrams and accepted answers are displayed directly in the diagram
***Table (Noncontiguous) Condition: Students work separate from the diagrams, in a distally located table

*Findings
**Problem-solving: No condition differences for numerical answers (F(1, 89) = 1.03, p > .3) or explanations for solvable problems (F(1, 89) <1).
**Deep Transfer Explanations: There was a significant effect of condition on students' explanations of unsolvable problems (F(1, 89) = 4.1, p = .046). Students in the Diagram (Contiguous) condition explained unsolvable problems better (M = .13, SE = .03) than students in the Table (Noncontiguous) condition (M = .06, SE = .02).

 
Figure 3. Mean performance on explanations for unsolvable problems by experimental condition, at pre- and posttest. 
[[Image:Butcher_UnsolvableExplanations.jpg]]

*True/False items: Although there were no condition difference for performance on "true" items (F(1,89) = 2.4, p = .13), students in the Diagram (Contiguous) condition better recognized and explained false answers at posttest (F (1, 89) = 4.3, p = .04). That is, students from both conditions were equally able to recognize statements that gave valid relationships between geometry rules and diagram elements (Diagram, M = .71, SE = .04; Table, M = .72, SE = .03). However, students who interacted with diagrams during practice were better able to recognize when and explain why given geometry rules were inappropriate to relate named diagram elements (M = .23, SE = .02) than students who worked separately from diagrams during practice (M = .17, SE = .02).

 
Figure 4. Mean performance on recognizing/explaining inappropriate applications of geometry rules, by experimental condition at pre- and posttest.
[[Image:Butcher_FalseExplanations.jpg]]

=== Explanation ===

The deep [[transfer]] benefits seen in Experiment 2 suggest that contiguous representations may help students [[Integration|integrate]] visual and verbal [[knowledge components]] during learning. From a Coordinative Learning perspective, the contiguous tutor interface provides [[implicit instruction]]al support for [[coordination]] of visual-verbal knowledge during tutored problem solving. Although the same diagram (an implicit/passive form of instruction) is present in both the contiguous and the noncontiguous representations, active interaction with the diagram (an active/implicit form of instruction) supports knowledge [[transfer]] following tutored practice. Active integration may cause students to attend to both representations simultaneously and thereby better distinguish relevant from irrelevant features. Enhanced attention to both representations may facilitate a process like [[co-training]]: Through easier [[coordination]] of feature interpretations across the visual and verbal representations, the student may be more likely to prune irrelevant features (e.g., the apparent size of an angle) that may be absent or inconsistent across representations and notice relevant features (e.g., the given geometric constraints on an angle) that may be present or consistent across representations. Such instructional facilitation of [[coordination]] should increase [[feature validity]] of [[knowledge components]] and promote [[robust learning]].

Although we cannot rule out the possibility that contiguous representations may support [[mapping]] between visual and verbal information in problem-solving, we see little evidence for substantial performance-based effects of mapping support on our [[normal post-test]]. All students performed equally well on trained problem-solving skills. Especially for higher-knowledge learners, interactive tutored practice may support mapping sufficiently to promote at least near-term [[retention]] of [[knowledge components]].

In terms of the micro-level of the theoretical framework, the contiguous representations should reduce the effort of deep learning paths in the [[learning event space]] by supporting strategic inferences and reasoning directly with the diagram. Our data may also suggest that contiguous representations can have a learning path effect: students who are able to reason directly with diagram representations may attend more closely to the geometric features and relations to which geometry principles apply. This could impact meaningful learning by increasing [[feature validity]] of the visual and verbal [[knowledge components]].

===Further Information===
==== Connections ====
Interactive Communication as Support for Visual-Verbal Integration: Our research is investigating multiple methods with which student learning can be supported by interactions with pictorial information during geometry learning -- see also our work on Integrated Hints in geometry: [[Mapping Visual and Verbal Information: Integrated Hints in Geometry (Aleven & Butcher)]]. However, our work also includes more a more explicit method for supporting student integration visual and verbal knowledge components. This method involves interactive support for students' [[Elaborated Explanations | elaborated explanations]] during geometry learning. Research investigating this explicit support is part of the [[Interactive Communication]] Cluster: [[Using Elaborated Explanations to Support Geometry Learning (Aleven & Butcher)]]

Visual Representations for Robust Learning in Other Domains: Our efforts to support students' integration of visual and verbal knowledge are informed by and related to efforts investigating the use of visual representations to support [[robust learning]] in other domains. A closely related PSLC project is [[Visual Representations in Science Learning|Visual Representations in Science Learning (Davenport, Klahr, & Koedinger)]], in which researchers are exploring whether coordination between verbal and visual representations can help students refine initially shallow understandings into meaningful chemical concepts.

==== Annotated Bibliography ====
*Presentation to the PSLC Advisory Board, Fall 2006. [http://www.learnlab.org/uploads/mypslc/talks/butchercontiguity_ab2006_final_distribute.ppt Link to Powerpoint slides]
*Butcher, K. B., & Aleven, V. A. (2007). Integrating Visual and Verbal Knowledge During Classroom Learning with Computer Tutors. To appear in the ''Proceedings of the 29th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society''. [http://www.learnlab.org/uploads/mypslc/publications/op557-butcher.pdf PDF File]

==== References ====
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
*Olina, Z., Reiser, R., Huang, X., Lim, J., & Park, S. (2006). Problem format and presentation sequence: Effects on learning and mental effort among U.S. high school students Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20, 299-309.

====Future Plans: June 2007 - December 2007====
#Analyze log data for evidence of visually-based knowledge components
#Analyze assessments for evidence of omission vs. comission errors
#Prepare journal manuscript
#Integrate results into final project report for PSLC

[[Category:Study]]

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T21:09:18Z

Kaye: /* References */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Further Information===
====Connections====

 
====References====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegerty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors. ''Educational Psychology Review''.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T21:08:53Z

Kaye: /* References */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Further Information===
====Connections====

 
====References====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegerty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors. In ''Educational Psychology Review''.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T20:57:35Z

Kaye: /* Research Questions */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Further Information===
====Connections====

 
====References====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegerty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T20:57:21Z

Kaye: /* Research Questions */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process ([[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]]) being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Further Information===
====Connections====

 
====References====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegerty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T20:56:55Z

Kaye:

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Further Information===
====Connections====

 
====References====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegerty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T20:56:38Z

Kaye:

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Further Information===
====Connections====

 
====Refrences====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegerty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.

Contiguous Representations for Robust Learning (Aleven & Butcher)

2007-07-25T20:53:22Z

Kaye:

== Learning with Diagrams in Geometry: Strategic Support for Robust Learning ==
''Vincent Aleven and Kirsten Butcher''

=== Summary Table ===
====Study 1====
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PIs''' || Vincent Aleven & Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Graduate Students: Andy Tzou (CMU HCII) 
Research Programmers/Associates: Octav Popescu (Research Programmer, CMU HCII), Grace Lee Leonard (Research Associate, CMU HCII), Thomas Bolster (Research Associate, CMU HCII)

|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || January 24, 2006
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || February 22, 2006
|-
| '''LearnLab Site''' || Central Westmoreland Career & Technology Center (CWCTC)
|-
| '''LearnLab Course''' || Geometry
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || 65
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 390
|-
| '''DataShop''' || Log data is uploaded and available in the DataShop
|}
 
====Study 2====
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PIs''' || Vincent Aleven & Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Graduate Students: Andy Tzou (CMU HCII), Carl Angioli (CMU HCII), Michael Nugent (Pitt, Computer Science) 
Research Programmers/Associates: Octav Popescu (Research Programmer, CMU HCII), Grace Lee Leonard (Research Associate, CMU HCII), Thomas Bolster (Research Associate, CMU HCII)

|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || April 28, 2006
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || May 26, 2006
|-
| '''LearnLab Site''' || Central Westmoreland Career & Technology Center (CWCTC)
|-
| '''LearnLab Course''' || Geometry
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || 130
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 780
|-
| '''DataShop''' || Log data is uploaded and available in the DataShop
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Does integration of visual and verbal knowledge during learning support deep understanding? Can student interactions with visual information during problem-solving support [[robust learning]]? The overall goal of this project is to gain a better understanding of 1) visual and verbal [[knowledge components]] in a problem-solving environment and, 2) how interacting with visual information can support the development of deep understanding. Ultimately, we are interested in [[coordination]] and [[integration]] processes in learning with visual and verbal [[knowledge components]], and how these processes may support [[robust learning]].

We are using the Geometry Cognitive Tutor as a research vehicle for our project. In geometry, visual information is represented in a problem diagram and verbal/symbolic information is represented in text that contains given and goal information as well as in conceptual rules/principles of geometry. The research described here investigates whether [[implicit instruction]] (via direct interaction with visual information during learning) can support [[robust learning]] through [[Visual-verbal coordination|visual-verbal coordination]] during learning. This [[implicit instruction]] is achieved via interactive instructional events in an intelligent tutoring environment, where students receive feedback on error and perform a simple (menu-based) form of [[self-explanation]] during practice.

=== Background & Significance ===
In this research, we draw upon previous work in learning with [[multimedia sources]], [[self-explanation]]s, and Cognitive Tutors. We hypothesize that two key cognitive processes support integrated knowledge development and [[robust learning]] when using visual and verbal representations. These processes are: 1) Successful [[mapping]] between visual and verbal information, and 2) [[Integration]] processes that combine visual and verbal representations into integrated [[knowledge components]]. Previous research has suggested that contiguous representations -- those that provide close temporal and physical proximity between visual and verbal elements during learning -- can support understanding of multimedia materials (e.g., Mayer, 2001); these benefits have been hypothesized to result from the easing of cognitive load required for [[mapping]] between visual and verbal information.

We are investigating if these benefits can be seen during real classroom learning when students engage in extended practice with learning materials. Our research examines the potential benefits of [[contiguity]] during intelligent tutoring for robust learning in classroom environments.

We hypothesize that [[implicit instruction]] that supports interaction with visual information will support [[coordination]] between and [[integration]] of visual and verbal information, promoting [[robust learning]] as measured by knowledge [[retention]] and [[transfer]].

By [[coordination]], we mean the processes that support [[mapping]] between relevant visual and verbal information as well as the processes that keep relevant [[knowledge components]] active. For example, in geometry a student needs to map between text references to angles and their location in a diagram and will need to maintain the numerical (given or solved) value of that angle to use in problem solving. By [[visual-verbal integration]], we mean knowledge construction events that involve generating a representation that includes both visual and verbal knowledge components. For example, in geometry a student may need to construct an understanding of linear angles that includes both a verbal definition (e.g., “two adjacent angles that form a line”) and a visual situation description (e.g., a visual representation of the two angles formed by intersection of a line).

In the context of the Geometry Cognitive Tutor, [[contiguity]] is achieved by placing related representations, such as a diagram and a workspace in which answers are entered, in close proximity that reduces (and in some cases, removes) the need for [[mapping]] between visual and verbal information. Although contiguous representations may reduce the initial cognitive load associated with [[mapping]] between representations, cognitive load demands may be less influential in classroom environments where practice is extended and distributed (Olina, Reiser, Huang, Lim, & Park, 2006). Thus, we assume that contiguous representations can support robust learning by promoting [[integration]] of visual and verbal information during practice. That is, [[contiguity]] may support students' connection between and [[integration]] of visual and verbal information leading to more robust knowledge of geometry principles. If these assumptions are true, we would expect to see similar performance on practiced problems for students who trained with [[Contiguous Representation|contiguous]] vs. noncontiguous representations. However, we would expect students using the contiguous representations to demonstrate better knowledge [[transfer]].

=== Glossary ===
See [[:Category:Visual-Verbal Learning (Aleven & Butcher Project)|Visual-Verbal Learning Project Glossary]]

=== Research questions ===
#Do [[Contiguous Representation|contiguous representations]] in geometry support students' [[Retention|retention]] and [[transfer]] of [[knowledge components]]?
#Are the effects of [[Contiguous Representation|contiguous representations]] stronger for [[transfer]] than for [[retention]]?

=== Dependent variables ===
*Pretest, [[normal post-test]], and [[transfer]] test measuring student performance on:
**Problem-solving items isomorphic to the practiced problems ([[normal post-test]])
**Complex and demanding problem-solving items unlike those seen during problem practice ([[transfer]])

*Log data collected during tutor use, used to assess:
**Learning curves
**Time on task
**Error rates
**Latency of responses

*(Planned) Log data collected during subsequent tutor use, will use to assess:
**[[Accelerated future learning]]
***(Note: Not available for studies conducted in "Circles" unit of the Geometry Cognitive Tutor, since the Circles unit is completed at the end of the school year.)

=== Independent Variables ===
*Contiguity of Representation
:''Contiguous representation (students work in diagram) vs. Non-contiguous representation (students work in separate table)''

Figure 1. Noncontiguous representation: Screen shot of tutor interface. 
[[Image:Butcher_TableScreenShot2.jpg]]

Figure 2. Contiguous representation: Screen shot of tutor interface. 
[[Image:Butcher_DiagramScreenShot.jpg]]

=== Hypotheses ===

*Contiguous representations increase strategic inferences and [[integration]] of visual and verbal [[knowledge components]] during problem-solving, thus supporting knowledge transfer.

=== Findings ===

Current findings suggest that interaction with visual representations during problem-solving supports deep [[transfer]] during learning.

====Study 1 (In Vivo, Geometry Cognitive Tutor) ====
*Summary
**In Vivo Study: 10th grade geometry classes in rural Pennsylvannia school
**Domain: Angles curriculum in the Geometry Cognitive Tutor
**Grade-matched pairs of students were randomly assigned to one of two conditions:
***Diagram (Contiguous) Condition: Students interacted directly with geometry diagrams and accepted answers are displayed directly in the diagram
***Table (Noncontiguous) Condition: Students work separate from the diagrams, in a distally located table

*Findings
**No overall effect of experimental condition on students' performance on geometry answers or reasons at posttest
**Although working in the Diagram condition improved lower-knowledge students' explanations at posttest, higher-knowledge students performed best when working in the Table condition. The result was evidenced by a significant 3-way interaction of Test Time (Pre- vs. Posttest) X Condition (Table vs. Diagram) X Prior Knowledge (Higher vs. Lower) for students' performance on geometry rules at posttest (F(1,39) = 6.2, p < .02).

====Study 2 (In Vivo, Geometry Cognitive Tutor) ====
*Summary
**In Vivo Study: 10th grade geometry classes in rural Pennsylvannia school
**Domain: Circles curriculum in the Geometry Cognitive Tutor
**Assessment was expanded to include not only answers and explanations for problem-solving items (as in Study 1), but also explanations on deep transfer items (explanations of unsolvable problems) and non-numerical reasoning items (true/false items that require students to judge whether a geometry rule is appropriate to relate named diagram elements).
**Grade-matched pairs of students were randomly assigned to one of two conditions:
***Diagram (Contiguous) Condition: Students interacted directly with geometry diagrams and accepted answers are displayed directly in the diagram
***Table (Noncontiguous) Condition: Students work separate from the diagrams, in a distally located table

*Findings
**Problem-solving: No condition differences for numerical answers (F(1, 89) = 1.03, p > .3) or explanations for solvable problems (F(1, 89) <1).
**Deep Transfer Explanations: There was a significant effect of condition on students' explanations of unsolvable problems (F(1, 89) = 4.1, p = .046). Students in the Diagram (Contiguous) condition explained unsolvable problems better (M = .13, SE = .03) than students in the Table (Noncontiguous) condition (M = .06, SE = .02).

 
Figure 3. Mean performance on explanations for unsolvable problems by experimental condition, at pre- and posttest. 
[[Image:Butcher_UnsolvableExplanations.jpg]]

*True/False items: Although there were no condition difference for performance on "true" items (F(1,89) = 2.4, p = .13), students in the Diagram (Contiguous) condition better recognized and explained false answers at posttest (F (1, 89) = 4.3, p = .04). That is, students from both conditions were equally able to recognize statements that gave valid relationships between geometry rules and diagram elements (Diagram, M = .71, SE = .04; Table, M = .72, SE = .03). However, students who interacted with diagrams during practice were better able to recognize when and explain why given geometry rules were inappropriate to relate named diagram elements (M = .23, SE = .02) than students who worked separately from diagrams during practice (M = .17, SE = .02).

 
Figure 4. Mean performance on recognizing/explaining inappropriate applications of geometry rules, by experimental condition at pre- and posttest.
[[Image:Butcher_FalseExplanations.jpg]]

=== Explanation ===

The deep [[transfer]] benefits seen in Experiment 2 suggest that contiguous representations may help students [[Integration|integrate]] visual and verbal [[knowledge components]] during learning. From a Coordinative Learning perspective, the contiguous tutor interface provides [[implicit instruction]]al support for [[coordination]] of visual-verbal knowledge during tutored problem solving. Although the same diagram (an implicit/passive form of instruction) is present in both the contiguous and the noncontiguous representations, active interaction with the diagram (an active/implicit form of instruction) supports knowledge [[transfer]] following tutored practice. Active integration may cause students to attend to both representations simultaneously and thereby better distinguish relevant from irrelevant features. Enhanced attention to both representations may facilitate a process like [[co-training]]: Through easier [[coordination]] of feature interpretations across the visual and verbal representations, the student may be more likely to prune irrelevant features (e.g., the apparent size of an angle) that may be absent or inconsistent across representations and notice relevant features (e.g., the given geometric constraints on an angle) that may be present or consistent across representations. Such instructional facilitation of [[coordination]] should increase [[feature validity]] of [[knowledge components]] and promote [[robust learning]].

Although we cannot rule out the possibility that contiguous representations may support [[mapping]] between visual and verbal information in problem-solving, we see little evidence for substantial performance-based effects of mapping support on our [[normal post-test]]. All students performed equally well on trained problem-solving skills. Especially for higher-knowledge learners, interactive tutored practice may support mapping sufficiently to promote at least near-term [[retention]] of [[knowledge components]].

In terms of the micro-level of the theoretical framework, the contiguous representations should reduce the effort of deep learning paths in the [[learning event space]] by supporting strategic inferences and reasoning directly with the diagram. Our data may also suggest that contiguous representations can have a learning path effect: students who are able to reason directly with diagram representations may attend more closely to the geometric features and relations to which geometry principles apply. This could impact meaningful learning by increasing [[feature validity]] of the visual and verbal [[knowledge components]].

===Further Information===
==== Connections ====
Interactive Communication as Support for Visual-Verbal Integration: Our research is investigating multiple methods with which student learning can be supported by interactions with pictorial information during geometry learning -- see also our work on Integrated Hints in geometry: [[Mapping Visual and Verbal Information: Integrated Hints in Geometry (Aleven & Butcher)]]. However, our work also includes more a more explicit method for supporting student integration visual and verbal knowledge components. This method involves interactive support for students' [[Elaborated Explanations | elaborated explanations]] during geometry learning. Research investigating this explicit support is part of the [[Interactive Communication]] Cluster: [[Using Elaborated Explanations to Support Geometry Learning (Aleven & Butcher)]]

Visual Representations for Robust Learning in Other Domains: Our efforts to support students' integration of visual and verbal knowledge are informed by and related to efforts investigating the use of visual representations to support [[robust learning]] in other domains. A closely related PSLC project is [[Visual Representations in Science Learning|Visual Representations in Science Learning (Davenport, Klahr, & Koedinger)]], in which researcher are exploring whether coordination between verbal and visual representations can help students refine initially shallow understandings into meaningful chemical concepts.

==== Annotated Bibliography ====
*Presentation to the PSLC Advisory Board, Fall 2006. [http://www.learnlab.org/uploads/mypslc/talks/butchercontiguity_ab2006_final_distribute.ppt Link to Powerpoint slides]
*Butcher, K. B., & Aleven, V. A. (2007). Integrating Visual and Verbal Knowledge During Classroom Learning with Computer Tutors. To appear in the ''Proceedings of the 29th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society''. [http://www.learnlab.org/uploads/mypslc/publications/op557-butcher.pdf PDF File]

==== References ====
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
*Olina, Z., Reiser, R., Huang, X., Lim, J., & Park, S. (2006). Problem format and presentation sequence: Effects on learning and mental effort among U.S. high school students Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20, 299-309.

====Future Plans: June 2007 - December 2007====
#Analyze log data for evidence of visually-based knowledge components
#Analyze assessments for evidence of omission vs. comission errors
#Prepare journal manuscript
#Integrate results into final project report for PSLC

[[Category:Study]]

Contiguous Representations for Robust Learning (Aleven & Butcher)

2007-07-25T20:52:27Z

Kaye:

== Learning with Diagrams in Geometry: Strategic Support for Robust Learning ==
''Vincent Aleven and Kirsten Butcher''

=== Summary Table ===
====Study 1====
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PIs''' || Vincent Aleven & Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Graduate Students: Andy Tzou (CMU HCII) 
Research Programmers/Associates: Octav Popescu (Research Programmer, CMU HCII), Grace Lee Leonard (Research Associate, CMU HCII), Thomas Bolster (Research Associate, CMU HCII)

|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || January 24, 2006
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || February 22, 2006
|-
| '''LearnLab Site''' || Central Westmoreland Career & Technology Center (CWCTC)
|-
| '''LearnLab Course''' || Geometry
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || 65
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 390
|-
| '''DataShop''' || Log data is uploaded and available in the DataShop
|}
 
====Study 2====
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PIs''' || Vincent Aleven & Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Graduate Students: Andy Tzou (CMU HCII), Carl Angioli (CMU HCII), Michael Nugent (Pitt, Computer Science) 
Research Programmers/Associates: Octav Popescu (Research Programmer, CMU HCII), Grace Lee Leonard (Research Associate, CMU HCII), Thomas Bolster (Research Associate, CMU HCII)

|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || April 28, 2006
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || May 26, 2006
|-
| '''LearnLab Site''' || Central Westmoreland Career & Technology Center (CWCTC)
|-
| '''LearnLab Course''' || Geometry
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || 130
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 780
|-
| '''DataShop''' || Log data is uploaded and available in the DataShop
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Does integration of visual and verbal knowledge during learning support deep understanding? Can student interactions with visual information during problem-solving support [[robust learning]]? The overall goal of this project is to gain a better understanding of 1) visual and verbal [[knowledge components]] in a problem-solving environment and, 2) how interacting with visual information can support the development of deep understanding. Ultimately, we are interested in [[coordination]] and [[integration]] processes in learning with visual and verbal [[knowledge components]], and how these processes may support [[robust learning]].

We are using the Geometry Cognitive Tutor as a research vehicle for our project. In geometry, visual information is represented in a problem diagram and verbal/symbolic information is represented in text that contains given and goal information as well as in conceptual rules/principles of geometry. The research described here investigates whether [[implicit instruction]] (via direct interaction with visual information during learning) can support [[robust learning]] through [[Visual-verbal coordination|visual-verbal coordination]] during learning. This [[implicit instruction]] is achieved via interactive instructional events in an intelligent tutoring environment, where students receive feedback on error and perform a simple (menu-based) form of [[self-explanation]] during practice.

=== Background & Significance ===
In this research, we draw upon previous work in learning with [[multimedia sources]], [[self-explanation]]s, and Cognitive Tutors. We hypothesize that two key cognitive processes support integrated knowledge development and [[robust learning]] when using visual and verbal representations. These processes are: 1) Successful [[mapping]] between visual and verbal information, and 2) [[Integration]] processes that combine visual and verbal representations into integrated [[knowledge components]]. Previous research has suggested that contiguous representations -- those that provide close temporal and physical proximity between visual and verbal elements during learning -- can support understanding of multimedia materials (e.g., Mayer, 2001); these benefits have been hypothesized to result from the easing of cognitive load required for [[mapping]] between visual and verbal information.

We are investigating if these benefits can be seen during real classroom learning when students engage in extended practice with learning materials. Our research examines the potential benefits of [[contiguity]] during intelligent tutoring for robust learning in classroom environments.

We hypothesize that [[implicit instruction]] that supports interaction with visual information will support [[coordination]] between and [[integration]] of visual and verbal information, promoting [[robust learning]] as measured by knowledge [[retention]] and [[transfer]].

By [[coordination]], we mean the processes that support [[mapping]] between relevant visual and verbal information as well as the processes that keep relevant [[knowledge components]] active. For example, in geometry a student needs to map between text references to angles and their location in a diagram and will need to maintain the numerical (given or solved) value of that angle to use in problem solving. By [[visual-verbal integration]], we mean knowledge construction events that involve generating a representation that includes both visual and verbal knowledge components. For example, in geometry a student may need to construct an understanding of linear angles that includes both a verbal definition (e.g., “two adjacent angles that form a line”) and a visual situation description (e.g., a visual representation of the two angles formed by intersection of a line).

In the context of the Geometry Cognitive Tutor, [[contiguity]] is achieved by placing related representations, such as a diagram and a workspace in which answers are entered, in close proximity that reduces (and in some cases, removes) the need for [[mapping]] between visual and verbal information. Although contiguous representations may reduce the initial cognitive load associated with [[mapping]] between representations, cognitive load demands may be less influential in classroom environments where practice is extended and distributed (Olina, Reiser, Huang, Lim, & Park, 2006). Thus, we assume that contiguous representations can support robust learning by promoting [[integration]] of visual and verbal information during practice. That is, [[contiguity]] may support students' connection between and [[integration]] of visual and verbal information leading to more robust knowledge of geometry principles. If these assumptions are true, we would expect to see similar performance on practiced problems for students who trained with [[Contiguous Representation|contiguous]] vs. noncontiguous representations. However, we would expect students using the contiguous representations to demonstrate better knowledge [[transfer]].

=== Glossary ===
See [[:Category:Visual-Verbal Learning (Aleven & Butcher Project)|Visual-Verbal Learning Project Glossary]]

=== Research questions ===
#Do [[Contiguous Representation|contiguous representations]] in geometry support students' [[Retention|retention]] and [[transfer]] of [[knowledge components]]?
#Are the effects of [[Contiguous Representation|contiguous representations]] stronger for [[transfer]] than for [[retention]]?

=== Dependent variables ===
*Pretest, [[normal post-test]], and [[transfer]] test measuring student performance on:
**Problem-solving items isomorphic to the practiced problems ([[normal post-test]])
**Complex and demanding problem-solving items unlike those seen during problem practice ([[transfer]])

*Log data collected during tutor use, used to assess:
**Learning curves
**Time on task
**Error rates
**Latency of responses

*(Planned) Log data collected during subsequent tutor use, will use to assess:
**[[Accelerated future learning]]
***(Note: Not available for studies conducted in "Circles" unit of the Geometry Cognitive Tutor, since the Circles unit is completed at the end of the school year.)

=== Independent Variables ===
*Contiguity of Representation
:''Contiguous representation (students work in diagram) vs. Non-contiguous representation (students work in separate table)''

Figure 1. Noncontiguous representation: Screen shot of tutor interface. 
[[Image:Butcher_TableScreenShot2.jpg]]

Figure 2. Contiguous representation: Screen shot of tutor interface. 
[[Image:Butcher_DiagramScreenShot.jpg]]

=== Hypotheses ===

*Contiguous representations increase strategic inferences and [[integration]] of visual and verbal [[knowledge components]] during problem-solving, thus supporting knowledge transfer.

=== Findings ===

Current findings suggest that interaction with visual representations during problem-solving supports deep [[transfer]] during learning.

====Study 1 (In Vivo, Geometry Cognitive Tutor) ====
*Summary
**In Vivo Study: 10th grade geometry classes in rural Pennsylvannia school
**Domain: Angles curriculum in the Geometry Cognitive Tutor
**Grade-matched pairs of students were randomly assigned to one of two conditions:
***Diagram (Contiguous) Condition: Students interacted directly with geometry diagrams and accepted answers are displayed directly in the diagram
***Table (Noncontiguous) Condition: Students work separate from the diagrams, in a distally located table

*Findings
**No overall effect of experimental condition on students' performance on geometry answers or reasons at posttest
**Although working in the Diagram condition improved lower-knowledge students' explanations at posttest, higher-knowledge students performed best when working in the Table condition. The result was evidenced by a significant 3-way interaction of Test Time (Pre- vs. Posttest) X Condition (Table vs. Diagram) X Prior Knowledge (Higher vs. Lower) for students' performance on geometry rules at posttest (F(1,39) = 6.2, p < .02).

====Study 2 (In Vivo, Geometry Cognitive Tutor) ====
*Summary
**In Vivo Study: 10th grade geometry classes in rural Pennsylvannia school
**Domain: Circles curriculum in the Geometry Cognitive Tutor
**Assessment was expanded to include not only answers and explanations for problem-solving items (as in Study 1), but also explanations on deep transfer items (explanations of unsolvable problems) and non-numerical reasoning items (true/false items that require students to judge whether a geometry rule is appropriate to relate named diagram elements).
**Grade-matched pairs of students were randomly assigned to one of two conditions:
***Diagram (Contiguous) Condition: Students interacted directly with geometry diagrams and accepted answers are displayed directly in the diagram
***Table (Noncontiguous) Condition: Students work separate from the diagrams, in a distally located table

*Findings
**Problem-solving: No condition differences for numerical answers (F(1, 89) = 1.03, p > .3) or explanations for solvable problems (F(1, 89) <1).
**Deep Transfer Explanations: There was a significant effect of condition on students' explanations of unsolvable problems (F(1, 89) = 4.1, p = .046). Students in the Diagram (Contiguous) condition explained unsolvable problems better (M = .13, SE = .03) than students in the Table (Noncontiguous) condition (M = .06, SE = .02).

 
Figure 3. Mean performance on explanations for unsolvable problems by experimental condition, at pre- and posttest. 
[[Image:Butcher_UnsolvableExplanations.jpg]]

*True/False items: Although there were no condition difference for performance on "true" items (F(1,89) = 2.4, p = .13), students in the Diagram (Contiguous) condition better recognized and explained false answers at posttest (F (1, 89) = 4.3, p = .04). That is, students from both conditions were equally able to recognize statements that gave valid relationships between geometry rules and diagram elements (Diagram, M = .71, SE = .04; Table, M = .72, SE = .03). However, students who interacted with diagrams during practice were better able to recognize when and explain why given geometry rules were inappropriate to relate named diagram elements (M = .23, SE = .02) than students who worked separately from diagrams during practice (M = .17, SE = .02).

 
Figure 4. Mean performance on recognizing/explaining inappropriate applications of geometry rules, by experimental condition at pre- and posttest.
[[Image:Butcher_FalseExplanations.jpg]]

=== Explanation ===

The deep [[transfer]] benefits seen in Experiment 2 suggest that contiguous representations may help students [[Integration|integrate]] visual and verbal [[knowledge components]] during learning. From a Coordinative Learning perspective, the contiguous tutor interface provides [[implicit instruction]]al support for [[coordination]] of visual-verbal knowledge during tutored problem solving. Although the same diagram (an implicit/passive form of instruction) is present in both the contiguous and the noncontiguous representations, active interaction with the diagram (an active/implicit form of instruction) supports knowledge [[transfer]] following tutored practice. Active integration may cause students to attend to both representations simultaneously and thereby better distinguish relevant from irrelevant features. Enhanced attention to both representations may facilitate a process like [[co-training]]: Through easier [[coordination]] of feature interpretations across the visual and verbal representations, the student may be more likely to prune irrelevant features (e.g., the apparent size of an angle) that may be absent or inconsistent across representations and notice relevant features (e.g., the given geometric constraints on an angle) that may be present or consistent across representations. Such instructional facilitation of [[coordination]] should increase [[feature validity]] of [[knowledge components]] and promote [[robust learning]].

Although we cannot rule out the possibility that contiguous representations may support [[mapping]] between visual and verbal information in problem-solving, we see little evidence for substantial performance-based effects of mapping support on our [[normal post-test]]. All students performed equally well on trained problem-solving skills. Especially for higher-knowledge learners, interactive tutored practice may support mapping sufficiently to promote at least near-term [[retention]] of [[knowledge components]].

In terms of the micro-level of the theoretical framework, the contiguous representations should reduce the effort of deep learning paths in the [[learning event space]] by supporting strategic inferences and reasoning directly with the diagram. Our data may also suggest that contiguous representations can have a learning path effect: students who are able to reason directly with diagram representations may attend more closely to the geometric features and relations to which geometry principles apply. This could impact meaningful learning by increasing [[feature validity]] of the visual and verbal [[knowledge components]].

===Further Information===
==== Connections ====
Interactive Communication as Support for Visual-Verbal Integration: Our research is investigating multiple methods with which student learning can be supported by interactions with pictorial information during geometry learning -- see also our work on Integrated Hints in geometry: [[Mapping Visual and Verbal Information: Integrated Hints in Geometry (Aleven & Butcher)]]. However, our work also includes more a more explicit method for supporting student integration visual and verbal knowledge components. This method involves interactive support for students' [[Elaborated Explanations | elaborated explanations]] during geometry learning. Research investigating this explicit support is part of the [[Interactive Communication]] Cluster: [[Using Elaborated Explanations to Support Geometry Learning (Aleven & Butcher)]]

Visual Representations for Robust Learning in Other Domains: Our efforts to support students' integration of visual and verbal knowledge are informed by and related to efforts investigating the use of visual representations to support [[robust learning]] in other domains. A closely related PSLC project is [[Visual Representations in Science Learning|Visual Representations in Science Learning (Davenport & Klahr)]], in which researcher are exploring whether coordination between verbal and visual representations can help students refine initially shallow understandings into meaningful chemical concepts.

==== Annotated Bibliography ====
*Presentation to the PSLC Advisory Board, Fall 2006. [http://www.learnlab.org/uploads/mypslc/talks/butchercontiguity_ab2006_final_distribute.ppt Link to Powerpoint slides]
*Butcher, K. B., & Aleven, V. A. (2007). Integrating Visual and Verbal Knowledge During Classroom Learning with Computer Tutors. To appear in the ''Proceedings of the 29th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society''. [http://www.learnlab.org/uploads/mypslc/publications/op557-butcher.pdf PDF File]

==== References ====
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
*Olina, Z., Reiser, R., Huang, X., Lim, J., & Park, S. (2006). Problem format and presentation sequence: Effects on learning and mental effort among U.S. high school students Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20, 299-309.

====Future Plans: June 2007 - December 2007====
#Analyze log data for evidence of visually-based knowledge components
#Analyze assessments for evidence of omission vs. comission errors
#Prepare journal manuscript
#Integrate results into final project report for PSLC

[[Category:Study]]

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T20:39:51Z

Kaye: /* Bibliography */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Bibliography===
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegerty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: getting to the difficult questions. ''Learning and Instruction, 14'', 343-351.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. ''Cognition and Instruction, 21''(4), 325-360.
*Koedinger, K. R. & Aleven, V. (In press). Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? ''International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57'', 247-262.

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T20:32:33Z

Kaye:

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Bibliography===
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. Cognition and Instruction, 21(4), 325-360.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57, 247-262.

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T20:31:54Z

Kaye: /* Further Information */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===
====Bibliography====
*Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
*Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003). The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems. Cognition and Instruction, 21(4), 325-360.
*Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57, 247-262.

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T20:30:19Z

Kaye: /* Findings */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. This experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T20:29:52Z

Kaye: /* Findings */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial then animated graphics, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T20:29:33Z

Kaye: /* Findings */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

The pattern of means for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]].

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T20:27:30Z

Kaye: /* Findings */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. However, the pattern of results for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion assessment revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]]. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T20:26:47Z

Kaye: /* Findings */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. However, the pattern of results for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion text revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]]. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T20:20:51Z

Kaye: /* Findings */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. However, the pattern of results for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion text revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]]. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T20:20:40Z

Kaye: /* Findings */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or[[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention or [[transfer]] assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. However, the pattern of results for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion text revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]]. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T19:48:38Z

Kaye: /* Findings */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in the processing of animated vs. static graphics. However, the pattern of results for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion text revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]]. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T19:48:12Z

Kaye: /* Findings */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in processing of animated vs. static graphics. However, the pattern of results for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion text revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]]. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T19:46:11Z

Kaye: /* Findings */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all F's < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but again there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). As with the circulatory system, analysis of the reflection questions revealed no differences in processing of animated vs. static graphics. However, the pattern of results for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion text revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]]. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T19:44:03Z

Kaye: /* Findings */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all F's < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). The pattern of results for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion text revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]]. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T19:43:31Z

Kaye: /* Findings */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in processing of animated vs. static graphics. These null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). The pattern of results for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion text revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]]. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T19:43:11Z

Kaye: /* Findings */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in processing of animated vs. static graphics. The null findings are in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). The pattern of results for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion text revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]]. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T19:41:28Z

Kaye: /* Findings */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). Analysis of the reflection questions also revealed no differences in processing of animated vs. static graphics. The lack of significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for all circulatory system assessments is in accordance with our hypothesis. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). The pattern of results for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion text revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]]. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T19:33:02Z

Kaye: /* Independent Variables */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed. After each graphic, participants answered reflection questions designed to assess their processing of the visual.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). In accordance with our hypothesis, these results reveal no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for all circulatory system assessments. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). The pattern of results for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion text revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]]. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T19:25:17Z

Kaye: /* Hypothesis */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] might be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). In accordance with our hypothesis, these results reveal no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for all circulatory system assessments. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). The pattern of results for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion text revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]]. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T19:22:45Z

Kaye: /* Dependent Variables */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of post-test assessments.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] may be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). In accordance with our hypothesis, these results reveal no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for all circulatory system assessments. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). The pattern of results for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion text revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]]. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T19:22:11Z

Kaye: /* Dependent Variables */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of questions administered during the post-test.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
 
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
 
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] may be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). In accordance with our hypothesis, these results reveal no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for all circulatory system assessments. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). The pattern of results for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion text revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]]. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T19:21:47Z

Kaye: /* Dependent Variables */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).
 
*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of questions administered during the post-test.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] may be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). In accordance with our hypothesis, these results reveal no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for all circulatory system assessments. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). The pattern of results for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion text revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]]. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===

Indirect process

2007-07-25T19:20:19Z

Kaye:

An indirect process is one which has no causal agent and no identifiable sequence of stages. The outcome of an indirect process results from the simultaneous, collective interaction of all agents of the process. While each agent performs the same behavior, the agent behaviors are independent of one another.

The process of students forming a bottleneck as they hurry through a narrow doorway when the school bell rings is an indirect process. The outcome of the bottleneck is not caused by a single student nor is it sequential; rather it results from the simultaneous, collective action of all of the students.

For more information, see:
 
Chi, M. T. H. (In press). Three types of conceptual change: Belief revision, mental model transformation, and categorical shift. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), Handbook of research on conceptual change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T19:17:11Z

Kaye: /* Independent Variables */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).

*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of questions administered during the post-test.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] may be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). In accordance with our hypothesis, these results reveal no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for all circulatory system assessments. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). The pattern of results for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion text revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]]. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T19:16:52Z

Kaye: /* Independent Variables */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed.

#Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

#Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).

*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of questions administered during the post-test.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] may be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). In accordance with our hypothesis, these results reveal no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for all circulatory system assessments. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). The pattern of results for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion text revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]]. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===

Static vs. Animated Visual Representations for Science Learning (Kaye, Small, Butcher, & Chi)

2007-07-25T19:16:06Z

Kaye: /* Independent Variables */

== Using Animated and Static Graphics to Scaffold Science Text Comprehension (PSLC Intern Project) ==
''Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small, Kirsten R. Butcher, & Michelene T.H. Chi''

=== Summary Table ===
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="text-align: left;"
| '''PI''' || Kirsten R. Butcher
|-
| '''Other Contributers''' || Research Programmers/Associates: Alyssa D. Kaye, Jenna E. Small 
Co-Investigator: Michelene T.H. Chi
|-
| '''Study Start Date''' || June 2007
|-
| '''Study End Date''' || July 2007
|-
| '''Number of Students''' || N = 12
|-
| '''Total Participant Hours''' || 24
|-
| '''Study Type''' || Lab Study
|}
 

=== Abstract ===
Graphics are often used in conjunction with texts to facilitate learning, but little is known about what type of graphics are most effective for learning different science content. This experiment sought to understand whether animated or static graphics better promote understanding and for which scientific processes animated graphics may be most beneficial. To test this, each participant read two texts, one representing a more [[direct process|direct scientific process]] (heart and circulatory system) and one representing a more [[indirect process|indirect scientific process]] (diffusion). Within each text, the participant viewed the corresponding animated or static graphics. During learning, participants saw either animated graphics, static graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. Preliminary results reveal that there were no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for either scientific process.

 

=== Glossary ===
*[[Direct process]]
*[[Indirect process]]
 

=== Research Questions ===
# Which type of graphic – animated or static – best facilitates [[robust learning]]?
# Does the benefit of animation depend upon the type of scientific process - [[direct process|direct]] or [[indirect process|indirect]] - being depicted?
# Is it better for a tutor to provide or for a student to generate motion from visual representations?

 

=== Background and Significance ===
The [[Coordinative Learning]] cluster defines [[coordination]] as the process of integrating relevant visual and verbal information; [[visual-verbal coordination]] is necessary to understand any type of graphic, whether static or animated. There is strong support for a multimedia effect, in which learning from two [[multimedia sources]], or [[visual-verbal integration]], augments memory and comprehension over text alone (Mayer, 2001). Though it is often thought that animated graphics allow for easier [[coordination]], apparent successes of animated graphics over static graphics have resulted from informational inequivalence, interactivity, and other confounds known to promote learning (Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). In addition, when learners can mentally animate static graphics, animated graphics have been found to be no more effective than the respective static graphics (Hegarty, 2004).

The effectiveness of static and animated graphics may be determined by what scientific processes they convey. [[direct process|Direct processes]] are defined as those processes which have an identifiable causal agent and occur in a sequential, dependent manner. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] are defined as those processes which have no causal agent and do not proceed sequentially. Previous research has shown that students have a better understanding of [[direct process|direct processes]] and often develop robust misconceptions of [[indirect process|indirect processes]] (Chi, in press).

Tverksky et al. (2002) have proposed that graphics are most effective when they conform to the congruence principle, which states that the structure and content of a graphic should correspond to the structure and content of the information being conveyed. Because the circulatory system represents a [[direct process]], both the static and animated graphics conform to the congruence principle. The process of diffusion is an [[indirect process]] involving unpredictable, random motion; therefore, the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle and thus may be more difficult to mentally animate.

Also under investigation is the [[assistance dilemma]], which refers to the question of what type of information a tutor should provide or withhold in order to promote optimal learning (Koedinger & Aleven, in press). If computer [[assistance]] diminishes individual mental effort, then the student may not learn the material as completely as when the student self-generates the information. Providing animations when students are able to mentally animate may reduce comprehension (Hegarty, 2004). However, because [[indirect process|indirect processes]] are often poorly understood by students, it may be difficult to mentally animate these processes. In these cases, animations provided by [[multimedia sources]] may promote optimal learning by providing information that the students would be unable to generate on their own.

This research investigates how animated and static graphics compare when other confounds, such as informational inequivalence and interactivity, are removed. The contexts in which animations are most effective for promoting better comprehension are also investigated in this experiment.

 

=== Independent Variables ===
*Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in which they read either both texts with static graphics, both texts with animated graphics, or one text with each type of graphic. The time spent observing the animation and respective static graphics was equated so that the participant could not move to the next screen until the minimum allotted time had passed.

*Variable 1: Static vs. Animated Visual Representations
**This study varied the presentation of animated or static graphics within text presented to the participant (within- and between-participants design).
**In the animated graphic condition, each participant viewed animated graphics taken from online science tutorial sites.
**In the static graphic condition, each participant viewed six still graphics taken directly from the animations to ensure informational equivalence.
Figure 1. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 1 <center>
[[Image:micro1_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 2. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 3 <center>
[[Image:micro3_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

Figure 3. Example Static Graphic: Micro Diffusion 6 <center>
[[Image:micro6_v2.jpg]]
 </center>

*Variable 2: Direct vs. Indirect Processes
**Participants read two texts – one on the circulatory system ([[direct process]]) and one on diffusion ([[indirect process]]).
**A [[direct process]] is defined as one which has an identifiable causal agent and occurs in a sequential, dependent manner.
***The circulatory system represents a [[direct process]]. For example, deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
**An [[indirect process]] is one which has no causal agent and does not proceed sequentially.
***The process of diffusion represents an [[indirect process]]. For example in diffusion, molecules are constantly in random, unpredictable motion, which eventually creates a discernible pattern.

 

===Dependent Variables ===
*[[Robust learning]] was tested via a pre-test/post-test design, that included [[Retention|retention]] and [[Transfer|transfer]] items. Students took a pretest prior to learning either test. Each posttest was administered after the learning phase for each topic (e.g. the students completed the circulatory system posttest after the circulatory system text was presented and before the diffusion text was presented).

*''[[Retention]]'' questions tested the acquisition of information explicitly stated in the text. This was measured by standardized gain scores from identical pre- and post-test questions as well as the percentage correct on some of the additional [[normal post-test]] questions.
**Example Retention Question: How many valves are there in the heart and where are they located?
 
*''Comprehension'' was defined as the level of understanding gained from the material; this was measured through various types of questions administered during the post-test.
**''Mental model development, immediate'': Pre- and post-test participant drawings of the heart and circulatory system were used as a measure of comprehension and understanding.
Figure 4: Example of Student Pre-Test Mental Model Drawing (Single Loop 1) <center>
[[Image:104 pre mental model drawing_v2.jpg]]
 </center>
Figure 5: Example of Student Post-Test Mental Model Drawing (Double Loop 2) <center>[[Image:104 post mental model drawing_v3.jpg]]
 </center>
 
*''[[Transfer]]'' items measured deep, inferential learning. These questions tested acquisition of concepts that were not explicitly stated, and thus needed to be inferred from reading the text or viewing the graphics. The post-test included both single-domain transfer questions and integrated transfer questions. Integrated transfer questions were presented at the end of the diffusion post-test and assessed the participant’s ability to integrate material from both texts and make inferences using that information. This deep, inferential learning was measured by percentage correct on additional post-test questions.
**Example Single-domain [[Transfer]] Question: Some kinds of fish look for food in large groups called schools. Each fish instinctively swims near another fish. Swimming in schools increases the survival rate of the fish as well as the chance of finding food sources. If the process of diffusion is similar to swimming in a school, what role does each fish play in achieving the school?
**Example Integrated [[Transfer]] Question: In the body, the concentrations of oxygen normally is much higher in the blood (outside the cells) than inside the cells and the concentration of carbon dioxide is much higher inside the cells than in the blood. Based on your knowledge of diffusion, explain how cells receive the oxygen they need from the bloodstream and lose harmful carbon dioxide. Be sure to mention how and why the molecules move.
*Point totals of pre- and post-tests of circulation and diffusion were equated in order to facilitate comparison.

 

=== Hypothesis ===
Because previous research has shown that learners are successful when they can infer motion from static graphics (Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003), we predict that static graphics will be as effective as animations when mental animation is attainable. Specifically, participants should be able to mentally animate the statics of a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system because the static graphics conform to the congruence principle (Tversky et al., 2002). As a result, we hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between animated and static graphics for [[direct process|direct processes]]. However, diffusion, an [[indirect process]], may be more difficult to mentally animate because the static graphics do not necessarily conform to the congruence principle. Therefore, animated graphics should improve comprehension of the process of diffusion. If animated graphics better support learning than static graphics for an [[indirect process]], this research would demonstrate when computer [[assistance]] may be necessary for easing the [[coordination]] of visual and verbal information.

In summary, we predict that there will be no significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the circulatory system text, but a significant difference between the animated and static graphics for the diffusion text, favoring the animated graphic condition.

 

===Findings===
Though there were significant learning gains for the circulatory system, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores and mental model assessments (''p'' < .001), there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). In accordance with our hypothesis, these results reveal no significant differences between the animated and static graphic conditions for all circulatory system assessments. For a [[direct process]] such as the circulatory system, animated graphics appear to be no more effective than mentally animating from informationally equivalent static graphics.

For the process of diffusion, there were also significant learning gains, as shown by the difference in pre- to post-test scores (''p'' < .001), but there were no significant differences between the animated and static conditions for retention, [[transfer]], or critique assessments in this domain (all Fs < 1). The pattern of results for the [[transfer]] scores of the diffusion text revealed that static graphics may be more beneficial, but this pattern did not reach statistical significance (''p'' = .126). If the observed pattern continues, this may reveal that static graphics promote [[robust learning]] of the process of diffusion, demonstrating that static graphics may be more effective than animated graphics for learning [[indirect process|indirect processes]]. [[indirect process|Indirect processes]] may be less difficult to mentally animate than first predicted.

All results are preliminary, as only 12 students have participated in the experiment thus far. The experiment will continue through Fall 2007. Future research will continue to investigate the effectiveness of animated and static graphics, specifically investigating in which domains animated or static graphics are most beneficial. Future research may also include additional measures of [[robust learning]], such as [[long-term retention]].

 

===Explanation===
This experiment examines the integration of [[knowledge components]] from visual and verbal information. In particular, the experiment assesses the [[path effects]] of learning from texts with different types of graphics. We are investigating whether animated or static graphics encourage students to employ more successful deep learning paths during the [[learning events|learning event]] and which type of graphic better promotes [[robust learning]]. Furthermore, we are examining whether the effectiveness of each type of graphic differs according to the scientific process portrayed.

 

===Descendents===

 

===Further Information===